Chandan Yatra
Introduction A coastal district of Orissa, Puri is a tourist’s paradise for its beautiful palm-fringed beaches, sanctuaries, religious monuments and historical artifacts. The history of Puri dates back to 3 century BC and boasts of the famous Jaganath Temple and the Konark Temple. Chodaganga Deva built the well known temple of Purusottama Jaganath and was hence named after him. The culture and rich heritage of Puri is displayed in the beautiful wall paintings, the ancient patta paintings, the traditional Ganjappa paintings and the beautiful architectures. The sandstone art is a speciality of Puri and showcases the talent of the artisans of the age. One of the most important fairs of Puri is the Chandan Yatra. It is celebrated all over Puri but the enthusiasm and zeal in Puri is unmatched. It is a 42 days long festival and the first 21 days are known as the Bahar Chandan whereas the second half is known as Bhitar Chandan.
Description During the festival, idols of Rama, Krishna, Bhudevi, Madanmohan and Sridevi are brought out in the form of a procession which moves towards the Narendra Tank. An important part of the procession is the image of the Pancha Pandavas which are images of Shiva from fie different temples. In the Narendra Tank, the Pancha Pandavas is placed on decorated boats. The devotees gather near the tank and worship the deities. During the Bhitar Chandan the celebrations and religious rituals take place within the premise of the temple.
Time to celebrate The Chandan Yatra is celebrated in the Indian month of Vaishakha, in April.
Durga Puja
Introduction Durga Puja One of the largest and most elaborate Hindu festivals in West Bengal, the Durga Puja is celebrated with equal enthusiasm in the neighboring countries like Nepal and Bhutan. It is a festival which unites people from all social backgrounds. The history of Durga Puja dates back to the Hindu epic, Ramayana. In an attempt to save Sita from Ravana, Lord Ram tried to vanquish him. However, a devout follower of Lord Shiva, Ravana could not be conquered. Lord Ram who worshipped Goddess Durga, the wife of Lord Shiva, asked for her mercies and blessings to save his wife from the clutches of Ravana. Although the religious festival dedicated to Goddess Durga is held in spring, Lord Rama in a desperate attempt to save Sita performed the rituals of the Durga Puja in autumn and is hence known as Akal Bodhan.
Description The five days of Durga Puja is a time of the year when all social, political and economic barriers are overpowered by the sense of celebration and festivity. The Durga Puja seems more of a social and cultural gathering rather than a religious one. One of the most important festivals of Orissa, Durga Puja is celebrated on a grand scale. Durga Puja is celebrated differently in different parts of India. The celebration in Bengal and Orissa begins with the building of pandals where the goddess is venerated. The artisans of the city show their work of art by creating innovative and artistic pandals. The rituals include recitation of sholaks and aarti. Devotees dress in new clothes and take active part in the rituals.
Time to celebrate Durga Puja, Orissa is celebrated over 5 days between the 6th and the 10th day of the waxing moon in the month of Ashwin according to the Bengali calendar which corresponds to the months of September and October.
Konark Dance Festival
Introduction Konark Dance Festival, Konark On the banks of the Bay of Bengal is situated the famous archeological and historical site of Orissa, the Konark Temple. A World Heritage Site, the Konark Temple is dedicated to the Sun God. Designed as the chariot of the Sun God, the Konark Temple has 24 wheels each about 10 feet in diameter. The entrance of the temple has seven horses of the chariot. Two lions placed at the entrance are like the gate keepers of the temple. The intricate carvings and the elaborate designs of the 700 year old heritage site of the Konark Temple make it an architectural wonder. The medieval architecture is uniquely used in the temple making it one of the most significant tourist locations in Orissa. Devotees and tourists from Indian and abroad visit the temple all through the year. The Konark Temple is not famous only for the architecture and sculptures but also for the Konark Dance Festival, Konark. The dance festival also draws the attention of many art lovers in India and across the globe.
Description A joint venture of the Orissa Tourism and the Odissi Research Centre, the Konark Dance Festival, Konark is conducted in the amphitheatre of the Konark Temple in Orissa. Experts in different classical dance forms of India, gather together to perform beautiful forms of Indian dance. Classical dances like Bharatnatyam, Odissi, Kuchipudi to name a few are some of the special attractions of the Konark Dance Festival, Konark. Along with classical dances, a fair is organized which displays handmade items, handicrafts and stalls specializing in different cuisines of India. The fair adds a special charm to the colorful dance festival.
Time to celebrate Konark Dance Festival, Konark is held in February every year. The festival is more than a cultural program. It is a boost to the tourism industry as well since tourists interested in the exclusive dance forms of India visit the state during the dance festival.
Makarmela Among the various fairs and festivals in Orissa, the Makarmela deserves a special mention. Celebrated on Makar Sankranti (January 14), this festival is celebrated with great fanfare all over Orissa in India. It is an event when all the towns and villages of the state wear a festive look and a sense of joie de vivre pervades the entire air. The Makarmela Festival is dedicated to the Sun God (Surya), who is worshipped with great devotion during this festival. Though the festival is celebrated all over the state, the main action is centered at some places like Ghatgaon, Kalijai, Atri, Keonjhar, Jashipur and Jagatsinghpur. A good number of pilgrims visit these places during the Makarmela, thus making it one of the main events to be celebrated in these centers. The Makarmela is celebrated in mid January because it is the very time when the sun enters the orbit of Capricorn. Besides, the color and gaiety that mark this festival simply make this event an affair to remember for all visitors. The religious fervor that underlies the Makarmela festival of Orissa in India is another factor that adds to its importance.
Makarmela Among the various fairs and festivals in Orissa, the Makarmela deserves a special mention. Celebrated on Makar Sankranti (January 14), this festival is celebrated with great fanfare all over Orissa in India. It is an event when all the towns and villages of the state wear a festive look and a sense of joie de vivre pervades the entire air. The Makarmela Festival is dedicated to the Sun God (Surya), who is worshipped with great devotion during this festival. Though the festival is celebrated all over the state, the main action is centered at some places like Ghatgaon, Kalijai, Atri, Keonjhar, Jashipur and Jagatsinghpur. A good number of pilgrims visit these places during the Makarmela, thus making it one of the main events to be celebrated in these centers. The Makarmela is celebrated in mid January because it is the very time when the sun enters the orbit of Capricorn. Besides, the color and gaiety that mark this festival simply make this event an affair to remember for all visitors. The religious fervor that underlies the Makarmela festival of Orissa in India is another factor that adds to its importance.
Puri Beach Festival
Introduction To Puri Beach Festival Puri is a popular tourist destination in Orissa. The place is famous for its religious seat and for its long stretches of golden beaches. Jagannath Temple of Puri is famous among the Hindus. Thousands of devotees from different corners of the country pay their visit to the temple. Puri is the perfect destination for tourists. Here, nature and ethnicity combine to make it a favorite hotspot for travelers. At the time of the Puri Beach Festival the inflow of tourists to Orissa increases manifold. This festival is the best time to imbibe the true essence of Orissa.
Description of Puri Beach Festival Puri Beach Festival of Orissa is an annual event of the state. The festival is not only popular among the domestic tourists but international tourists also who come to feel the true spirit of Orissa. The Puri Beach festival unveils the rich cultural history of Orissa to the tourists. The Beach Festival of Puri is a secular festival and does not bear any religious color. People from various background and culture can take part in this grand occasion. The festival takes place on the Puri beach where different cultural shows take place including traditional dance, music, performing arts. The local stalls display intricate handicrafts and hand woven items like saris, shawls, fabrics, baskets and needle works. The beach festival in Puri is a five-day occasion. Sand art is one of the main attractions in which, budding artists from Orissa art college make wonderful designs and artwork with the sand on the beach.
Time For Celebration of Puri Beach Festival Beach Festival in Puri is a famous cultural festival that takes place in the month of November. In the month of November, Puri remains populated with tourist from different corner of the world. The railways, road and the air route of Orissa keep the state well-connected with different parts of the country.
Taratarini Mela
Introduction To Taratarini Mela India is the land of fairs and festivals. Different states of India bear different cultures and traditions which attract tourists from foreign countries as well as from neighboring states. 5000 years old Hindu culture gives an enriched background to every festival that takes place in India. Orissa is one of the oldest states that hold a glorious past of India. The religious life and the cultural heritage of Orissa can be well evident in the fairs and festivals of Orissa. Taratarini Mela in Orissa is one of the main festivals in Orissa. Taratarini fair is regarded as an important event that gathers various devotees from different corners of the state and the country.
Description of Taratarini Mela Taratarini Mela of Orissa is a significant event that brings thousands of tourists. The fair is an occasion where devotees of different cultures and background come to make the festival a successful one. Taratarini mela takes place at Taratarini Pitha which is 30 kms away from Berhampur. Berhampur is a well-known town in Orissa and is well accessible by railways and road route. The mela draws people from far and wide with its colorful and vibrant atmosphere. Parents bring their children for their well being to the Taratarini Mela.
Time For Celebration of Taratarini Mela Taratarini Mela is celebrated from mid of March to mid of April, which is the month of Chaitra according to Oriya calendar. This fair is one of the eminent fairs in Orissa and locals participate in the fair to make it a grand occasion.
Dhanu Yatra
Introduction To Dhanu Yatra Lord Krishna is an important mythological character in Hindu Mythology. Lord Krishna is worshipped in Orissa and other parts of India with great fervor. The other name of Krishna is Jagannath and Puri is famous for the Jagannath Temple. Dhanu Yatra of Orissa is an important festival that is based on the mythological stories of ‘Bhagawat Purana’. Lord Krishna with his magnificent tales attracts various tourists to take part in this festival of Orissa.
Description of Dhanu Yatra Lord Krishna’s legendary tales draw Hindu devotees from far and wide to experience the rich religious culture of India. Dhanu Yatra of Orissa is based on the story of Krishna who visited Mathura to eyewitness the ceremony of ‘Bow’ organized by Kansa, the then King of Mathura. The word ‘Dhanu’ means ‘Bow’. The festival takes place in the Sambalpur District of Orissa. During this festival tourist gathers from different parts of the state and witnesses various local performances. These performances are held especially in the afternoon. Other entertainment programs and cultural shows make the occasion a colorful one.
Time For Celebration of Dhanu Yatra Dhanu Yatra takes place in the months of December – January. The festival continues for 5 to 11 days after ‘Pausa Purnima’ according to the local calendar. Dhanu Yatra gathers various tourists from different parts of the state as well as from the country. The railway route connects Sambalpur with other parts of the state and the country. Tourists can take the bus as the neighboring cities and states provide bus service at a reasonable rate.
Jagannath Rath Yatra
Introduction Jagannath Rath Yatra Orissa, the erstwhile territory of Kalinga is a land with rich historical and cultural importance. The name, Orissa has been derived from a Sanskrit word, Odra Vishaya also known as Odra Desa. The history of the region dates back many years. The independent state of Orissa was established in 1936. The natural landscape of Orissa is massive and protected from exploitation. This offers natural habitat to a number of animals and birds. Wildlife conservation in the natural habitat is a means of attracting tourists and adventure lovers. One of the most significant wildlife resorts in Orissa is the Nandankanan or the Garden of Gods. Orissa is almost synonymous with the Jagannath Rath Yatra in Puri. A popular procession, Jagannath Rath Yatra commemorates the journey of Lord Krishna to Mathura.
Description Jagannath Rath Yatra, Puri is celebrated by 7 to 10 lacs devotees who travel to Orissa to be a part of the celebration. The procession of chariots begins in the Jagdish Temple in Jamalpur. The chariots are dedicated to Lord Krishna, his brother Balaram and his sister Subhadra. The procession is followed by elephants who are decorates with colorful clothes and accessories. It is believed that Lord Krishna and his siblings visit Gundecha Ghar, the garden house and after three days they return home. The procession hence returns to the Jagannath Temple after three days. This procession is known as Ultarath. The Jagannath Rath Yatra is celebrated in all parts of the country. But the celebration in Puri is special and more elaborate than the other regions of India. All regional, social and political differences are bridged in this procession. People from all parts of the country visit Puri during this time of the year.
Time to celebrate The Jagannath Rath Yatra is celebrated between the months of June and July. Ensure a trip to Puri during this time of the year to experience an unusual gathering and the unmatched devotion of thousands of people.
Maha Shivaratri Known for its rich heritage and exotic culture, Orissa is beautiful state and a major tourist destination of India. With temples, monuments, beaches, waterfalls scattered all over the state Orissa is indeed a place to be. The state is also known for its various fairs and festivals held throughout the year. Mahashivratri, Jagannath Puri Yatra, Durga Puja etc. are some of the famous fairs and festivals held in Orissa. Dedicated to lord Shiv, Mahashiv Ratri is one of the most important festivals of Hindus and celebrated with great enthusiasm in Orissa. Falling on the 14th day of Phalgun, Maha Shivratri is an important festival of Orissa. On the eve of Maha Shivratri, the devotees observe fast and perform puja throught out the night. Maha Shivratri is celebrated in all parts of Orissa. Mahendragiri, Gupteshwar, Kapilas, Puri, Bhibhaneshwar and Khiching etc. are some of the places in Orissa where the festival of Maha Shivaratri can be best enjoyed. Lingaraj temple and Hakateshwar temple are the two major centers of Shivratri celebration in Orissa. Besides, the Shivratri celebration at Loknath temple in Puri is also very popular in Orissa and is visited by large number of devotees on this holy occasion.
Megha Mela A good number of events adorn the fairs and festivals calendar of Orissa. Among the most popular of events celebrated with great fervor by the people of Orissa is the Megha Mela of Konark. This is an event that draws thousands of pilgrims to this holy town of Orissa. The Megha Mela is held on the 7th day of Magha (the bright half of the month) and can indeed be described as a mass convergence of pilgrims from all over. One can also see a good number of tourists busy capturing the essence of the festival on their camera lenses. A trip to the Megha Mela in Konark, Orissa starts with a dip in the waters of Chandrabhaga Teertha. Devotees can be seen performing this ritual in huge numbers and welcoming the rising sun with fervent prayers. The hum of prayers simply rises to a crescendo as more and more devotees join the congregation to welcome the rising sun. The religious fervor that underlies the Megha Mela is sure to awe many a visitor. Besides, the vibrant presence of color that marks the Megha Mela is another factor that adds to the event’s appeal.
Snana Yatra
Introduction Snana Yatra Puri, the abode of Lord Jagannath is considered an extremely holy destination in eastern India. Devotees from all across the country visit Puri all through the year especially during the Jagannath Festival. The Jagannath Temple in Puri, Orissa is a major centre of attraction for devotees as well as tourists. Constructed in the 12th century by Raja Ananta Varman Chodaganga Dev, the temple attracts thousands of people across India and the world. Lord Jagannath, a manifestation of Lord Krishna is worshipped as the Lord of the World. At the Jagannath Temple in Orissa, along with the idol of Lord Jagannath are the idols of his brother Balaram and his sister Subhadra.
Description Snana Yatra is celebrated to commemorate the day Lord Jagannath was born. The celebration includes a special and elaborate bath of the deity. It is known from the Skanda Purana that Raja Indradyumna who installed the idols of Lord Jagannath, Balaram and Subhadra in the Jagannath Temple in Puri had organized a bathing ceremony. The Niladri Mohadaya which is a religious text written in the local Orissa language relates the rituals of the Snana Yatra ritual. This festival is often believed to be a tribal ritual as the Daitas and Savars, tribal of the region have the sole authority to perform the rituals. The day before the ceremony the deities are brought out of the temple in an elaborate procession to the place where they will be bathed called the Snana-Vedi. The designated area is constructed very high so that visitors outside the temple can also witness the ritual. The festival includes collecting water from the far away jungles where the water is untouched by the animals of the jungle. The priests carry one hundred and thirty gold and copper vessels to the Golden Well or the Suna Kua. With their mouths covered they fill the vessels. The water is then purified by the Brahmin priests. Before the bathing ceremony begins, the deities are covered in silk, decorated and purified with water and incense. Along with the chanting of Vedic mantras, the bathing ceremony is conducted.
Time to celebrate Snana Yatra is organized on the full moon or Purnima in the month of Jyestha.
Taratarini Mela
Introduction To Taratarini Mela
India is the land of fairs and festivals. Different states of India bear different cultures and traditions which attract tourists from foreign countries as well as from neighboring states. 5000 years old Hindu culture gives an enriched background to every festival that takes place in India.
Orissa is one of the oldest states that hold a glorious past of India. The religious life and the cultural heritage of Orissa can be well evident in the fairs and festivals of Orissa. Taratarini Mela in Orissa is one of the main festivals in Orissa. Taratarini fair is regarded as an important event that gathers various devotees from different corners of the state and the country.
Description of Taratarini Mela
Taratarini Mela of Orissa is a significant event that brings thousands of tourists. The fair is an occasion where devotees of different cultures and background come to make the festival a successful one.
Taratarini mela takes place at Taratarini Pitha which is 30 kms away from Berhampur. Berhampur is a well-known town in Orissa and is well accessible by railways and road route. The mela draws people from far and wide with its colorful and vibrant atmosphere. Parents bring their children for their well being to the Taratarini Mela.
Time For Celebration of Taratarini Mela
Taratarini Mela is celebrated from mid of March to mid of April, which is the month of Chaitra according to Oriya calendar. This fair is one of the eminent fairs in Orissa and locals participate in the fair to make it a grand occasion.
Showing posts with label Orissa. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Orissa. Show all posts
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History of Orissa
The history of Orissa makes an interesting case-study in that it's history is in many ways atypical from that of the northern plains and many of the common generalizations that are made about Indian history do not seem to apply to the Oriya region.
The word Oriya is an anglicised version of Odia which itself is a modern name for the Odra or Udra tribes that inhabited the central belt of modern Orissa. Orissa has also been the home of the Kalinga and Utkal tribes that played a particularly prominent role in the region's history, and one of the earliest references to the ancient Kalingas appears in the writings of Vedic chroniclers. In the 6th C. BC, Vedic Sutrakara Baudhayana mentions Kalinga as being beyond the Vedic fold, indicating that Brahminical influences had not yet touched the land. Unlike some other parts of India, tribal customs and traditions played a significant role in shaping political structures and cultural practices right up to the 15th C. when Brahminical influences triumphed over competing traditions and caste differentiation began to inhibit social mobility and erode what had survived of the ancient republican tradition.
Kalinga
Very early in Kalingan history, the Kalingas acquired a reputation for being a fiercely independant people. Ashoka's military campaign against Kalinga was one of the bloodiest in Mauryan history on account of the fearless and heroic resistance offered by the Kalingas to the mighty armies of the expanding Mauryan empire. Perhaps on account of their unexpected bravery, emperor Ashoka was compelled to issue two edicts specifically calling for a just and benign administration in Kalinga.
Unsurprisingly, Mauryan rule over Kalinga did not last long. By the 1st C. BC, Kalinga's Jain identified ruler Kharavela had become the pre-eminent monarch of much of the sub-continent and Mauryan Magadha had become a province of the Kalingan empire. The earliest surviving monuments of Orissa (in Udaigiri near Bhubaneshwar) date from his reign, and surviving inscriptions mention that Prince Kharavela was trained not only in the military arts, but also in literature, mathematics, and the social sciences. He was also reputed to be a great patron of the arts and was credited with encouraging dance and theater in his capital.
Although the bravery of the Kalingas became legendary, and finds mention in the Sahitya Darpan, it is important to note that a hereditary warrior caste like the Kshatriyas did not take hold in the region. Soldiers were drawn from the peasantry as needed and rank in the military depended as much on fighting skills and bravery as on hereditary factors. In this (and other) respects, Oriya history resembles more the history of the nations of South East Asia, and may have been one of the features of Oriya society that allowed it to successfully fend off 300 years of raids initiated by numerous Islamic rulers untill the 16th century.
Metallurgy, Crafts and Trade
Owing to it's vast mineral resources, metallurgy developed quite naturally in ancient Orissa and may have been an additional factor in catapulting the region to considerable importance during the iron age. Iron tools were used in agricultural production, digging irrigation canals, stone-quarrying, cave excavation and later monumental architecture. Rice cultivation got a particular fillip and during the iron age irrigation works from Orissa spread to the regions of ancient Andhra and Tamil Nadu around 300 BC (See M.S. Randhawa: A history of agriculture in India, Vol. 1. New Delhi.) Orissa also became a major steel producing centre and steel beams were extensively used in the monumental temples of Bhubaneshwar and Puri.
Being a coastal region, maritime trade played an important role in the development of Oriya civilization. Cultural, commercial and political contacts with South East Asia, particularly Southern Burma, Malaysia and Indonesia were especially extensive and maritime enterprises play an interesting part in Oriya folk-tales and poetry. Historical records suggest that around the 7th C. AD, the Kongoda dynasty from central Orissa may have migrated to Malaysia and Indonesia. There is also evidence of exchange of embassies with China. Records of Oriya traders being active in the ports of South East Asia are fairly numerous and in his descriptions of Malacca, Portuguese merchant Tome Pires indicates that traders from Orissa were active in the busy port as late as the 16th C.
(There is evidence to suggest that trade contact between Eastern India and Thailand may date as far back as the 3rd or 4th C BC. Himanshu Ray (The Winds of Change - Buddhism and the Maritime Links of Early South Asia) suggests that at least eight oceanic routes linked the Eastern Coast of India with the Malayan pensinsula, and after the Iron Age, metals (such as iron, copper and tin), cotton textiles and foodstuffs comprised the trade. She also suggests that the trade involved both Indian and Malayo-Polynesian ships. Archealogical evidence from Sisupalgarh (near Bhubaneshwar) in Orissa suggests that there may also have been direct or indirect trade contacts between ancient Orissa and Rome dating to the 1st-2nd C AD (or possibly earlier). The chronicles of Huen Tsang refer to Orissa's overseas contacts in the 7th C, and by the 10th C, records of Orissa's trade with the East begin to proliferate.)
Adequate agricultural production combined with a flourishing maritime trade contributed to a flowering of Orissan arts and crafts especially textiles. Numerous communities of weavers and dyers became active throughout the state perfecting techniques like weaving of fine Muslins, Ikat, Sambalpuri and Bomkai silks and cottons, applique and embroidery. Orissa was also known for it's brass and bell metal work, lacquered boxes and toys, intricate ivory, wood and stone carvings, patta painting and palm leaf engraving, basket weaving and numerous other colorful crafts. Often, decorative techniques relied on folk idioms as in the painted, circular playing cards known as Ganjifas.
Later, Cuttack became the centre for lace-like exquisite silver filigree work, (known as Tarakashi) when Orissa was brought under Mughal rule.
Philosophy, Language and Idealogy
Both Buddhism and Jainism played an important role in the cultural and philosophical developments of early Oriya civilization. Most Buddhist and Jain texts were written in Pali-Prakrit and the Prakrita Sarvasva, a celebrated Prakrit grammar text was authored by Markandeya Das, an Oriya. Kharavela's Hatigumpha inscription is in Pali, leading to the speculation that Pali may have been the original language of the Oriya people.
By the 7th C. AD, Brahminism had also become influential, especially in the courts and Hiuen Tsang (the well-known Chinese chronicler) observed how Buddhist Viharas and Brahminic temples flourished side by side. And although royal inscriptions of this time were in Sanskrit, the most commonly spoken language was not, and according to Hiuen Tsang appeared to be quite distinct from the language of Central India, and may have been a precursor of modern day Oriya.
But even as the Bhauma Kings of the 6th-8th C issued edicts in Sanskrit, they patronized numerous Buddhist institutions and the art, architecture and poetry of the period reflected the popularity of Buddhism in the region.
Later, Orissa's Buddhism came to be modulated by strong Tantric influences, while a more traditional Vedic and Brahminical version of Hinduism was brought to Orissa by Brahmins from Kannauj. Shaivism from the South was institutionalized in Puri. In addition, the majority of Orissa's adivasis continued to practice some form of animism and totem-worship. Unifying all these different traditions was the Shiva-Shakti cult which evolved from an amalgamation of Shaivism (worship of Shiva), Shaktism (worship of the Mother Goddess) and the Vajrayana, or Tantric form of Mahayana Buddism.
What made possible this fusion was that apart from the formal distinctions that separated these different religious and philosophical trends, in practical matters, there was a growing similiarity between them. Whereas early Buddhism and the Nyaya school within Hinduism had laid considerable stress on rationalism and scientific investigation of nature, later Buddhism and the Shaivite schools both emphasized philosphical variants of concepts first developed in the Upanishads, along with mysticism and devotion. Tantrism had also developed along a dual track - on the one hand it had laid emphasis on gaining practical knowledge and a clear understanding of nature - on the other, it too came steeped in mysticism and magic.
At the same time, the Buddhist ethos had created an environment where compromise was preferred to confrontation. This allowed tribal deities and gods and goddesses associated with numerous fertility cults to be integrated into the Hindu pantheon. Tantric constructs also met with some degree of approval.
Since Tantrism emphasized the erotic as a means to spiritual salvation, the culture of austerity and sexual abstinence that had pervaded early Buddhism was replaced with an unapologetic embrace of all that was erotic.
Unlike some other parts of India, Oriya society had not yet been deeply differentiated by caste, and egalitarian values remained well-ingrained amongst the peasant masses. Hence, any idealogy that championed a hierarchical division of society would have been unacceptable. The Shiva Shakti cult was a compromise in that while it did not exclude social inequality, it did not preclude social mobility either. In fact, the cult became popular precisely because it articulated the possibility of upward mobility through the acquisition of knowledge, skill or energetic personal effort.
Yogini Cults
Tantric influences were of particular import for the survival of the Yogini cults in Orissa. The Yogini cults concentrated on worship of the shakti (female life force), with a belief in the efficacy of magic ritual. In ancient texts, Yoginis are depicted as consorts of Yogis, and like their male companions practiced yoga to gain mastery over science and acquire magical powers. Some tantric schools associated with the Yogini cults such as the Kaula Marga prescribed Maithuna (sexual intercourse) with outcast women or women of low caste as the most consummate soul-lifting experience. Although Yogini cults were not unique to Orissa, two out of four surviving Yogini temples are to be found in Hirapur and Ranipur-Jharial.
The Hirapur temple is ascribed to the Bhauma and Somavansi rulers of Orissa (mid 8th - mid 10th C. AD) who were known for their eclectic liberalism and noted for their patronage of philosophy, art, architecture and literature.
Popular Literature
While the literature of the court and the intelligentsia was primarily written in Sanskrit, and included a variety of commentaries and theoretical treatises on religion, politics, art and literature as well as reworks of the epics, popular literature in Oriya initially focused on folk tales, ballades, creation myths, devotional songs, love poetry and erotica.
But in the 15th century, the Gangas who were patrons of many of Orissa's monumental temples were defeated by Kapilendra Deva, who rose from the ranks to found the Surya dynasty. It was in his reign that Sarala Das wrote a popular Oriya version of the Mahabharatha. Sarala Das arose from a peasant family and took his name from the goddess Sarala who was worshipped in his village in the district of Cuttack. He described himself as an unschooled 'Shudra' and became popularly known as Shudra-muni. Although the broad themes his Mahabharatha match other traditional versions, there is much that was original and written with a popular sensibility. His version knitted in local folk tales and ballads, and incorporated the ethical and moral values then embraced by the artisan class and peasantry.
The Chandi Purana, also written by Sarala Das referred to Yoginis as forms of the Devi or the Supreme Goddess illustrating the continued popular appeal of the Yogini cults in Orissa's coastal belt.
Thus what emerged in Orissa from the 9th century on was a heady cocktail of mystical and practical currents that allowed for a certain degree of social mobility and provided space for ordinary peasants to make contributions to popular literature and poetry.
This stimulated the popularity of reading and since there were no taboos against learning Oriya, literacy spread in the villages and such popular literature developed a wide mass following. A network of village libraries housed popular texts in neatly transcribed versions. Illuminated manuscripts and illustrated epics also became popular. By some accounts, literacy in many villages reached 40% or more before the onslaught of colonial rule.
Decline of Oriya Civilization
The first signsof decline in Oriya society came as the administrators of the Ganga and Surya kings began to usurp undue privileges and acquire a greater number of hereditary rights. At the same time, religious affairs began to be dominated by the Puri Brahmins who were instrumental in promoting ever increasing ritual and unprecedented ceremonial pomp during religious festivals. Tribal deities were slowly edged out as Brahminical gods acquired supremacy. Social mobility declined and the first concrete appearances of a formalized caste system began to appear. The Patnaiks, Mahapatras, Nayakas and others who had played a major role in the royal adminstration, along with the Brahmins comprised the upper-caste elite as social stratification crystallized.
The silting up of Orissa's major rivers in the 16th C. led to a severe decline in maritime trade and may have further aggravated socially regressive trends. Orissa also suffered decisive defeats at the hands of Raja Man Singh (Akbar's military general) and the Marathas, leaving it dismembered and particularly vulnerable against the British who colonized it soon after the victory in Bengal.
Orissa during Colonial Rule
Like much of India, colonial rule had a devastating impact on the economic and social life of the Oriya people. Numerous categories of crafts workers, especially weavers and dyers were bankrupted and reduced to abject poverty. The peasantry suffered under the burden of back-breaking taxes and forced unpaid labour. But the Oriyas did not accept subjugation without putting up heroic resistance. Just three years after British occupation, Jayakrishna Rajguru - hereditary priest of the Gajapatis (or the Rajas of Khurda) organized a revolt that ended in tragic defeat and his public hanging at the hands of the British. In 1818 there was another revolt when the entire state rose up under the leadership of Bakshi Jagabandhu Vidyadhara of Khurda. For six months the people of Southern Orissa were practically freed from British rule but in the end the rebellion was ruthlessly quelled and the aftermath was to be disastrous.
The nobility was systematically decimated, the Paikas - the national militia were disarmed and disinherited, and the peasantry already reduced to virtual slavery. All administrative posts not directly handled by the British were assigned to Bengalis who were perceived to be more loyal to British rule. From local police constables to assistant school teachers - Bengalis were hired but Oriyas excluded. Bengali chauvinists in Calcutta defended such a regime, some even going to the extent of demanding that all Oriyas be taught in Bengali since Oriya was nothing but a minor dialect of Bengali.
Even as urban Bengal received a few concessions like the founding of universities and cultural societies - Orissa was reduced to a minor outpost of the colonial empire - a cultural wasteland. Orissa's future was now inextricably linked to the growth of the national struggle in Bengal and the rest of the country, and any hint of growth in the national movement naturally drew enthusiastic support from nationalist-minded Oriyas.
Although independence brought about dramatic improvements in the lives of all sections of the population, two centuries of damage wrought by colonial rule could not be easily undone after independence. As evident from recent census results, high levels of poverty and illiteracy continue to dog the state.
For Orissa to regain it's ancient vitality, it will require not only greater sympathy from other Indians but a conscious programme of affirmative action from the centre that promotes mass education and employment opportunities so that Orissa can fully join the Indian mainstream as a vibrant and equal member of the Indian union.
Note: References to ancient Orissa may well include parts of Jharkhand, Southern Bengal, Chhatisgarh and Northern Andhra - which at various times were politically integrated into the different kingdoms of ancient and medieval Orissa.
The word Oriya is an anglicised version of Odia which itself is a modern name for the Odra or Udra tribes that inhabited the central belt of modern Orissa. Orissa has also been the home of the Kalinga and Utkal tribes that played a particularly prominent role in the region's history, and one of the earliest references to the ancient Kalingas appears in the writings of Vedic chroniclers. In the 6th C. BC, Vedic Sutrakara Baudhayana mentions Kalinga as being beyond the Vedic fold, indicating that Brahminical influences had not yet touched the land. Unlike some other parts of India, tribal customs and traditions played a significant role in shaping political structures and cultural practices right up to the 15th C. when Brahminical influences triumphed over competing traditions and caste differentiation began to inhibit social mobility and erode what had survived of the ancient republican tradition.
Kalinga
Very early in Kalingan history, the Kalingas acquired a reputation for being a fiercely independant people. Ashoka's military campaign against Kalinga was one of the bloodiest in Mauryan history on account of the fearless and heroic resistance offered by the Kalingas to the mighty armies of the expanding Mauryan empire. Perhaps on account of their unexpected bravery, emperor Ashoka was compelled to issue two edicts specifically calling for a just and benign administration in Kalinga.
Unsurprisingly, Mauryan rule over Kalinga did not last long. By the 1st C. BC, Kalinga's Jain identified ruler Kharavela had become the pre-eminent monarch of much of the sub-continent and Mauryan Magadha had become a province of the Kalingan empire. The earliest surviving monuments of Orissa (in Udaigiri near Bhubaneshwar) date from his reign, and surviving inscriptions mention that Prince Kharavela was trained not only in the military arts, but also in literature, mathematics, and the social sciences. He was also reputed to be a great patron of the arts and was credited with encouraging dance and theater in his capital.
Although the bravery of the Kalingas became legendary, and finds mention in the Sahitya Darpan, it is important to note that a hereditary warrior caste like the Kshatriyas did not take hold in the region. Soldiers were drawn from the peasantry as needed and rank in the military depended as much on fighting skills and bravery as on hereditary factors. In this (and other) respects, Oriya history resembles more the history of the nations of South East Asia, and may have been one of the features of Oriya society that allowed it to successfully fend off 300 years of raids initiated by numerous Islamic rulers untill the 16th century.
Metallurgy, Crafts and Trade
Owing to it's vast mineral resources, metallurgy developed quite naturally in ancient Orissa and may have been an additional factor in catapulting the region to considerable importance during the iron age. Iron tools were used in agricultural production, digging irrigation canals, stone-quarrying, cave excavation and later monumental architecture. Rice cultivation got a particular fillip and during the iron age irrigation works from Orissa spread to the regions of ancient Andhra and Tamil Nadu around 300 BC (See M.S. Randhawa: A history of agriculture in India, Vol. 1. New Delhi.) Orissa also became a major steel producing centre and steel beams were extensively used in the monumental temples of Bhubaneshwar and Puri.
Being a coastal region, maritime trade played an important role in the development of Oriya civilization. Cultural, commercial and political contacts with South East Asia, particularly Southern Burma, Malaysia and Indonesia were especially extensive and maritime enterprises play an interesting part in Oriya folk-tales and poetry. Historical records suggest that around the 7th C. AD, the Kongoda dynasty from central Orissa may have migrated to Malaysia and Indonesia. There is also evidence of exchange of embassies with China. Records of Oriya traders being active in the ports of South East Asia are fairly numerous and in his descriptions of Malacca, Portuguese merchant Tome Pires indicates that traders from Orissa were active in the busy port as late as the 16th C.
(There is evidence to suggest that trade contact between Eastern India and Thailand may date as far back as the 3rd or 4th C BC. Himanshu Ray (The Winds of Change - Buddhism and the Maritime Links of Early South Asia) suggests that at least eight oceanic routes linked the Eastern Coast of India with the Malayan pensinsula, and after the Iron Age, metals (such as iron, copper and tin), cotton textiles and foodstuffs comprised the trade. She also suggests that the trade involved both Indian and Malayo-Polynesian ships. Archealogical evidence from Sisupalgarh (near Bhubaneshwar) in Orissa suggests that there may also have been direct or indirect trade contacts between ancient Orissa and Rome dating to the 1st-2nd C AD (or possibly earlier). The chronicles of Huen Tsang refer to Orissa's overseas contacts in the 7th C, and by the 10th C, records of Orissa's trade with the East begin to proliferate.)
Adequate agricultural production combined with a flourishing maritime trade contributed to a flowering of Orissan arts and crafts especially textiles. Numerous communities of weavers and dyers became active throughout the state perfecting techniques like weaving of fine Muslins, Ikat, Sambalpuri and Bomkai silks and cottons, applique and embroidery. Orissa was also known for it's brass and bell metal work, lacquered boxes and toys, intricate ivory, wood and stone carvings, patta painting and palm leaf engraving, basket weaving and numerous other colorful crafts. Often, decorative techniques relied on folk idioms as in the painted, circular playing cards known as Ganjifas.
Later, Cuttack became the centre for lace-like exquisite silver filigree work, (known as Tarakashi) when Orissa was brought under Mughal rule.
Philosophy, Language and Idealogy
Both Buddhism and Jainism played an important role in the cultural and philosophical developments of early Oriya civilization. Most Buddhist and Jain texts were written in Pali-Prakrit and the Prakrita Sarvasva, a celebrated Prakrit grammar text was authored by Markandeya Das, an Oriya. Kharavela's Hatigumpha inscription is in Pali, leading to the speculation that Pali may have been the original language of the Oriya people.
By the 7th C. AD, Brahminism had also become influential, especially in the courts and Hiuen Tsang (the well-known Chinese chronicler) observed how Buddhist Viharas and Brahminic temples flourished side by side. And although royal inscriptions of this time were in Sanskrit, the most commonly spoken language was not, and according to Hiuen Tsang appeared to be quite distinct from the language of Central India, and may have been a precursor of modern day Oriya.
But even as the Bhauma Kings of the 6th-8th C issued edicts in Sanskrit, they patronized numerous Buddhist institutions and the art, architecture and poetry of the period reflected the popularity of Buddhism in the region.
Later, Orissa's Buddhism came to be modulated by strong Tantric influences, while a more traditional Vedic and Brahminical version of Hinduism was brought to Orissa by Brahmins from Kannauj. Shaivism from the South was institutionalized in Puri. In addition, the majority of Orissa's adivasis continued to practice some form of animism and totem-worship. Unifying all these different traditions was the Shiva-Shakti cult which evolved from an amalgamation of Shaivism (worship of Shiva), Shaktism (worship of the Mother Goddess) and the Vajrayana, or Tantric form of Mahayana Buddism.
What made possible this fusion was that apart from the formal distinctions that separated these different religious and philosophical trends, in practical matters, there was a growing similiarity between them. Whereas early Buddhism and the Nyaya school within Hinduism had laid considerable stress on rationalism and scientific investigation of nature, later Buddhism and the Shaivite schools both emphasized philosphical variants of concepts first developed in the Upanishads, along with mysticism and devotion. Tantrism had also developed along a dual track - on the one hand it had laid emphasis on gaining practical knowledge and a clear understanding of nature - on the other, it too came steeped in mysticism and magic.
At the same time, the Buddhist ethos had created an environment where compromise was preferred to confrontation. This allowed tribal deities and gods and goddesses associated with numerous fertility cults to be integrated into the Hindu pantheon. Tantric constructs also met with some degree of approval.
Since Tantrism emphasized the erotic as a means to spiritual salvation, the culture of austerity and sexual abstinence that had pervaded early Buddhism was replaced with an unapologetic embrace of all that was erotic.
Unlike some other parts of India, Oriya society had not yet been deeply differentiated by caste, and egalitarian values remained well-ingrained amongst the peasant masses. Hence, any idealogy that championed a hierarchical division of society would have been unacceptable. The Shiva Shakti cult was a compromise in that while it did not exclude social inequality, it did not preclude social mobility either. In fact, the cult became popular precisely because it articulated the possibility of upward mobility through the acquisition of knowledge, skill or energetic personal effort.
Yogini Cults
Tantric influences were of particular import for the survival of the Yogini cults in Orissa. The Yogini cults concentrated on worship of the shakti (female life force), with a belief in the efficacy of magic ritual. In ancient texts, Yoginis are depicted as consorts of Yogis, and like their male companions practiced yoga to gain mastery over science and acquire magical powers. Some tantric schools associated with the Yogini cults such as the Kaula Marga prescribed Maithuna (sexual intercourse) with outcast women or women of low caste as the most consummate soul-lifting experience. Although Yogini cults were not unique to Orissa, two out of four surviving Yogini temples are to be found in Hirapur and Ranipur-Jharial.
The Hirapur temple is ascribed to the Bhauma and Somavansi rulers of Orissa (mid 8th - mid 10th C. AD) who were known for their eclectic liberalism and noted for their patronage of philosophy, art, architecture and literature.
Popular Literature
While the literature of the court and the intelligentsia was primarily written in Sanskrit, and included a variety of commentaries and theoretical treatises on religion, politics, art and literature as well as reworks of the epics, popular literature in Oriya initially focused on folk tales, ballades, creation myths, devotional songs, love poetry and erotica.
But in the 15th century, the Gangas who were patrons of many of Orissa's monumental temples were defeated by Kapilendra Deva, who rose from the ranks to found the Surya dynasty. It was in his reign that Sarala Das wrote a popular Oriya version of the Mahabharatha. Sarala Das arose from a peasant family and took his name from the goddess Sarala who was worshipped in his village in the district of Cuttack. He described himself as an unschooled 'Shudra' and became popularly known as Shudra-muni. Although the broad themes his Mahabharatha match other traditional versions, there is much that was original and written with a popular sensibility. His version knitted in local folk tales and ballads, and incorporated the ethical and moral values then embraced by the artisan class and peasantry.
The Chandi Purana, also written by Sarala Das referred to Yoginis as forms of the Devi or the Supreme Goddess illustrating the continued popular appeal of the Yogini cults in Orissa's coastal belt.
Thus what emerged in Orissa from the 9th century on was a heady cocktail of mystical and practical currents that allowed for a certain degree of social mobility and provided space for ordinary peasants to make contributions to popular literature and poetry.
This stimulated the popularity of reading and since there were no taboos against learning Oriya, literacy spread in the villages and such popular literature developed a wide mass following. A network of village libraries housed popular texts in neatly transcribed versions. Illuminated manuscripts and illustrated epics also became popular. By some accounts, literacy in many villages reached 40% or more before the onslaught of colonial rule.
Decline of Oriya Civilization
The first signsof decline in Oriya society came as the administrators of the Ganga and Surya kings began to usurp undue privileges and acquire a greater number of hereditary rights. At the same time, religious affairs began to be dominated by the Puri Brahmins who were instrumental in promoting ever increasing ritual and unprecedented ceremonial pomp during religious festivals. Tribal deities were slowly edged out as Brahminical gods acquired supremacy. Social mobility declined and the first concrete appearances of a formalized caste system began to appear. The Patnaiks, Mahapatras, Nayakas and others who had played a major role in the royal adminstration, along with the Brahmins comprised the upper-caste elite as social stratification crystallized.
The silting up of Orissa's major rivers in the 16th C. led to a severe decline in maritime trade and may have further aggravated socially regressive trends. Orissa also suffered decisive defeats at the hands of Raja Man Singh (Akbar's military general) and the Marathas, leaving it dismembered and particularly vulnerable against the British who colonized it soon after the victory in Bengal.
Orissa during Colonial Rule
Like much of India, colonial rule had a devastating impact on the economic and social life of the Oriya people. Numerous categories of crafts workers, especially weavers and dyers were bankrupted and reduced to abject poverty. The peasantry suffered under the burden of back-breaking taxes and forced unpaid labour. But the Oriyas did not accept subjugation without putting up heroic resistance. Just three years after British occupation, Jayakrishna Rajguru - hereditary priest of the Gajapatis (or the Rajas of Khurda) organized a revolt that ended in tragic defeat and his public hanging at the hands of the British. In 1818 there was another revolt when the entire state rose up under the leadership of Bakshi Jagabandhu Vidyadhara of Khurda. For six months the people of Southern Orissa were practically freed from British rule but in the end the rebellion was ruthlessly quelled and the aftermath was to be disastrous.
The nobility was systematically decimated, the Paikas - the national militia were disarmed and disinherited, and the peasantry already reduced to virtual slavery. All administrative posts not directly handled by the British were assigned to Bengalis who were perceived to be more loyal to British rule. From local police constables to assistant school teachers - Bengalis were hired but Oriyas excluded. Bengali chauvinists in Calcutta defended such a regime, some even going to the extent of demanding that all Oriyas be taught in Bengali since Oriya was nothing but a minor dialect of Bengali.
Even as urban Bengal received a few concessions like the founding of universities and cultural societies - Orissa was reduced to a minor outpost of the colonial empire - a cultural wasteland. Orissa's future was now inextricably linked to the growth of the national struggle in Bengal and the rest of the country, and any hint of growth in the national movement naturally drew enthusiastic support from nationalist-minded Oriyas.
Although independence brought about dramatic improvements in the lives of all sections of the population, two centuries of damage wrought by colonial rule could not be easily undone after independence. As evident from recent census results, high levels of poverty and illiteracy continue to dog the state.
For Orissa to regain it's ancient vitality, it will require not only greater sympathy from other Indians but a conscious programme of affirmative action from the centre that promotes mass education and employment opportunities so that Orissa can fully join the Indian mainstream as a vibrant and equal member of the Indian union.
Note: References to ancient Orissa may well include parts of Jharkhand, Southern Bengal, Chhatisgarh and Northern Andhra - which at various times were politically integrated into the different kingdoms of ancient and medieval Orissa.
