History of Rajasthan

According to the Hindu Mythology, the Rajputs of Rajasthan were the descendants of the Kshatriyas or warriors of Vedic India. The emergence of the Rajput warrior clans was in the 6th and 7th centuries. Rajputs ancestry can be divided into two: the "solar" or  suryavanshi-those descended from Rama, the hero of the epic Ramayana, and the "lunar" or chandravanshi, who claimed descent from Krishana, the hero of the epic Mahabharata. Later a third clan was added, the agnikula or fire-born, said to have emerged from the flames of a sacrificial fire on Mt Abu.

It has been accepted that the Rajputs were divided into thirty-six races and twenty-one kingdoms. The Rajput clans gave rise to dynasties like Sisodias of Mewar (Udaipur), the Kachwahas of Amber (Jaipur), the Rathors of Marwar (Jodhpur & Bikaner), the Hadas of Jhalwawar, Kota & Bundi, the Bhattis of Jaisalmer, the Shekhawats of Shekhawati and the Chauhans of Ajmer.

Early History

Rajasthan is the north-western region of India, and has remain independent from the great empires. Buddhism failed to make substantial inroad here; the Mauryan empire (321-184 BC), whose most renowned emperor, Ashoka, Converted to Buddhism in 261 BC, had minimal impact in Rajasthan, However, there are Buddhist caves and stupas (Buddhist Shrines) at Jhalawar, in Southern Rajasthan.

Ancient Hindu scriptural epics make reference to sites in present-day Rajasthan. The Holy Pilgrimage site of Pushkar is mentioned in both the Mahabharata and Ramayana.

Emergence of the Rajputs

 
The fall of the Gupta Empire, which held dominance in northern India for nearly 300 years until the early 5th Century, was followed by a period of instability as various local chieftains sought to gain supremacy. Power rose and fell in northern India. Stability was only restored with the emergence of the Gurjara Partiharas, the earliest of the Rajput (from 'Rajputra', or Sons of Princes) dynasties which were later to hold the balance of power throughout Rajasthan.

Whatever their actual origins, the Rajputs have evolved a complex mythological genealogy. This ancestry can be divided into two main branches: the Suryavansa, or Race of the Sun (Solar Race), which claims direct descent from Rama; and the Induvansa, or Race of the Moon (Lunar race), which claims descent from Krishna, Later a third branch was added, the Agnikula, or 'Fire Born'. These people claim they were manifested from the flames of a sacrificial fire on Mt.Abu From these three Principal races emerged the 36 Rajput clans.

The Rajput clans gave rise to dynasties such as the Chauhans, Sisodias, Kachhwahas and Rathores. Chauhans of the Agnikula Race emerged in the 12th century and were renowned for their valour. Their territories included the Sapadalksha kingdom, which encompassed a vast area including present- day Jaipur, Ranthambore, part of Mewar, the western portion of Bundi district, Ajmer Kishangarh and even, at one time, Delhi. Branches of the Chauhans also ruled territories know as Ananta (in present-day Shekhawati) and Saptasatabhumi.

The Sisodias of the Suryavansa Race, Originally from Gujarat, migrated to Rajasthan in the mid-7th Century and reigned over Mewar, which encompassed Udaipur and Chittorgarh.

The Kachhwahas, originally from Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh, travelled west in the 12th century. They built the massive fort at Amber, and later shifted the capital to Jaipur. Like the Sisodias, they belonged to the Suryavansa Race.

Also belonging to the Suryavansa Race, the Rathore (earlier known as Rastrakutas) traveled from Kanauj, in Uttar Pradesh. Initially they settled in Pali, south of present-day Jodhpur, but later moved to Mandore in 1381 and ruled over Marwar (Jodhpur). Later they started building the stunning Meherangarh (fort) at Jodhpur.

The Bhattis, who belong to the Induvansa Race, driven from their homeland in the Punjab by the Turks, installed themselves at Jaisalmer in 1156. They remained more of less entrenched in their desert Kingdom untill they were integrated into the state of Rajasthan following Independence.

Sisodia

Mewar is the oldest kingdom of the world. Mewar or Udaipur state was founded by Guhil 568 AD, and his descendants have ruled over the area ever since. Separated from the rest of India by mountains and dense forests, Mewar developed the spirit of iron discipline and stoic resolve, which was to become its most salient feature and to arm its determined resistance.

Sisodia, the major clan of Mewar since Maharana HAMIR SINGH I (1326-1364). Prior to that, since Guhil (569-586) founded the dynasty, the original Guhilot family ruled Mewar. However, in the 12th century, Chittor came under attack and the Mewar capital was relocated at AHAR. It was during this period that there was a FAMILY SPLIT. For reasons unknown, the breakaway occurred possibly towards the end of the reign of Rawal KARAN (RAN) SINGH I (1158-1168). Two of his sons, Mahap and Rahap, quit Ahar, possibly in anger that another son, KSHEM SINGH had been declared Karan's heir. Mahap established a small, independent kingdom at Dungarpur. Rahap defeated Mokal, the Paramara (Parihara) Prince of Mandor at SISODA. He established a junior branch of the Guhilot family at Sisoda, naming his clan Sisodias after the town, and taking the title of 'Rana'.

Sisoda, a town about 15 km. northwest of NATHDWARA, which became the headquarters of the breakaway branch of the ruling Guhilot family of Mewar, naming themselves SISODIA after the town. See following entry, and MEWAR FAMILY SPLIT.

Genealogy: The line of succession of the Sisodia Ranas was Rahap, Narpat, Dinkaran, Jaskaran Nagpal, Puran Pal, Prithi Pal, Bhuvan Singh, Bhim Singh, Jai Singh and Laksha (or Lakshman) Singh.

Laksha was killed at the first sack of Chittor (1303), as was the ruler of Mewar, Rawal RATAN SINGH I. Laksha's grandson, Hamir succeeded him, and also the king. Thus the Sisodias became the ruling family of Mewar with HAMIR SINGH I (1326-1364), who replaced the age-old, traditional title of 'Rawal' with that of the Sisodias, 'Rana', extending it to 'Maharana'.

In his Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, James TOD recounts an amusing story of the origin of the name Sisodia. He claims an old holy man near Bhainsrorgarh told it to him.

In these wilds, an ancient Rana of Chittor (actually Ahar, as his patronymic in this tale is Ahariya) sat down to a got (feast) consisting of the game slain in the chase: and being very hungry, he hastily swallowed a piece of meat to which a gadfly adhered. The fly grievously tormented the Rana's stomach, and he sent for a physician. The wise man (bedi) secretly ordered an attendant to cut off the tip of a cow's ear, as the only means of saving the monarch's life. On obtaining this forbidden morsel (the cow being sacred to a Hindu, the consumption of beef is therefore anathema), the bedi folded it in a piece of thin cloth, and attaching a string to it, made the royal patient swallow it. The gadfly fastened on to the bait, and was dragged to light. The physician was rewarded; but the curious Rana insisted on knowing by what means the cure was effected. When he heard that a piece of sacred kine had passed his lips, he determined to expiate the enormity in a manner that its heinousness required, and to swallow boiling lead (sisa)! A vessel was put on the fire, and half a ser soon melted, when, praying that his involuntary offence might be forgiven, he boldly drank it off; but lo! It passed through him like water. From that day, the name of the tribe was changed from Aharya to Sisodia (possibly after the miraculous dose of molten lead, 'sisa').

Told called it "an absurd tale"; as stated above, the name Sisodia was derived from the village of Sesoda in western Mewar. Author, Chandradioji Sisodia, writing in the time of Maharana Fateh Singh, paid the clan this eulogistic (and, of course, biased) tribute:

The noblest of the noble race of Rajputs, represent the elder branch of the Suryanvanshi (Children of the Sun) Raghuvansi, another patronymic derived from the predecessor of Rama from whom (as genealogists state), all the solar lines descended. The titles of many of these families are disputed. But the entire Aryan or Hindu race yield unanimous franchise to the Chief of the Sisodias, as the legitimate heir to the throne of Many, Ishwaku, Delipa, Raghu, Darasratha, and Rama, and style him 'Hindua Suraj' (sun of the Hindu race) and 'Yavadaryakulakamladhivarkara' (sun of the entire Aryan race). He is universally allowed to be the first of the 36 royal clans, therefore, as the crowning ornament of the Aryan aristocracy is quite beyond all question of rivalry.

Kachawaha

Kachawaha has been a distinguished Rajvans of the 36 Rajput Rajvans, well known person Ram of history is worshiped as god. Descendants of Kush, son of Ram were known as Kushwah (Kachawaha). Raja Suryapal founded Gwalior, Raja Vazaradama of Gwalior was a famous ruler of this vans.

In 10th century descendent of Varzadama Dulhe Rai founded the Kachawa rule in Rajasthan in 12th century. It is said Kankil became the ruler of Amber. Pajwan of Amber was the contemporary of Prithviraj Chauhan (1178-1192 AD.) OF Ajmer. was called the crown Sanwants of Prithviraj. He was killed in the fight to win over Sanyogita. Later in Amber Rajvans Raja Man Singh who showed his bravery from Kabul to far south, Gujarat and Bengal.

Kachawaha are the suryavansi rajputs, they reined over area in and around Jaipur. Present districts under them were Jaipur, Dausa, Sikar ,Jhunjhunu, Churu, Sawai Madhopur.

Rathores

Rathore are the people from the west Rajasthan. Their area spreads from Marwar (Jodhpur) region, Barmer, Churu, Bikaner. They had kingdoms in Rajasthan, Jodhpur (Marwar) and Bikaner (Jangladesh), Nagaur. Rathore's have many gotras, most of these gotras are from the name of the great warriors of the past and gotras are being used by their family members. Some of these gotras are: Jodha, Bidawat, Banirot, Champawat, mertiya and so forth.

Rathore's were said to be the worshipers of sun. To understand the huge clan of Rathore's we will have understand their areas they occupy. Rathore's of Jodhpur were supreme in present districts such as - Jodhpur, Pali, Ajmer, Nagaur, Barmer, Sirohi. Rathore,s of Bikaner were occupant of the area that included districts Bikaner, Churu, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh.

These two states (Jodhpur and Bikaner) had many major and minor thikana's ( Thikana was the jagir and each Jagir included many villages as per the thikana). Each Thikana had a Thakur. Who in turn paid revenue to the Maharaja of the state and also provided with well trained soldiers to the Maharaja in Battle.

Chauhans

 

According to the Rajput bards the Chauhan is one of the four Agnikula or 'fire sprung' tribes who were created by the gods in the anali kund or 'fountain of fire' on Mount Abu to fight against the Asuras or demons. Chauhan is also one of the 36 (royal) ruling races of the Rajputs.

Chauhan dynasty flourished from the 8th to 12th centuries AD. It was one of the four main Rajput dynasties of that era, the others being Pratiharas, Paramaras and Chalukyas. The Chauhans dominated Delhi, Ajmer, Ranthambhor. They were also prominent at Sirohi in the southwest of Rajputana, and at Bundi and Kota in the east. Inscriptions also associate them with Sambhar, the salt lake area in the Amber (later Jaipur) district. Chauhan politics were largely campaigns against the Chalukyas and the invading Muslim hordes. In the 11th century they founded the city of Ajayameru (Ajmer) in the southern part of their kingdom, and in the 12th century captured Dhilika (the ancient name of Delhi) from the Tomaras and annexed some of their territory along the Yamuna River. Prithviraj III has become famous in folk tales and historical literature as the Chauhan king of Delhi who resisted the Muslim attack in the first Battle of TARAIN (1191). Armies from other Rajput kingdoms, including Mewar assisted him. However, Prithviraj was defeated in a second battle at Tarain the following year. This failure ushered in Muslim rule in North India in the form of the SLAVE DYNASTY, the first of the Delhi Sultanates.

History of Punjab

The History of Punjab is as old as the history of the Indian Civilization. The land of five rivers, this state was known as Panchal when the Aryans came to India in the third millennium BC. before that, the whole region of the Sindhu (Indus) and its tributaries were inhibited by the Harappans or the people of Copper age who constructed great cities in this region. Ropar in modern Punjab is a great example of this civilization. The Harappan culture declined suddenly between 1800-1700 BC and its end is as puzzling as its beginning. After the decline of the Harappans, Aryans from Central Asia ventured into this land and made this their home.

Punjab was the first place on the Indian subcontinent where the Aryans actually decided to settle after a long period of grazing and fighting with the aboriginal communities. This was the place where later parts of the Rgveda and other Vedas were written. This was also the place where first war for the control of entire north India or Aryawart (as it was known in those days) was fought between the Aryans and non-Aryans, known as Dasragya War (war of 10 kings).

Gidda Dance, Punjab TravelsPunjab always had a strategic importance due to its position on the famous Grand Trunk Road that connected the eastern parts of India to the extreme northwest point of Taxila (now in Afghanistan). This road was first constructed by Ashoka to have a better administration of the northwestern frontier, which was always a problem. After the decline of the Mauryan Empire, the Indo Greeks, Guptas, and Vardhans ruled this region in succession. After the coming of Muslims in the 9th-10th century AD, the region became an integral part of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. It was also under the Maratha rule for some time.

After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the most prominent ruler in this land was Maharaja Ranjit Singh in the early 19th century. After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Sikhs could not hold on to their territory for long and the British controlled most of the region either directly or through the princely states.

The Partition of India in 1947 was a turning point for this state. Most of the Muslim dominated areas went out with Pakistan; while the Sikh and Hindu dominated areas remained with India. Lakhs of people were killed in the mayhem that engulfed in this region in the wake of the Partition. After independence, a new state of Punjab was created with modern day Haryana and Himachal Pradesh being a part of this state.

History of Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu, the cradle of Dravidian culture, has a very rich history dating back to thousands of years. Some anthropologists and historians believe that human activity in this region began as early as 300, 000 years ago. It is also suggested that the first Dravidians were part of the early Indus Valley Civilization and had to migrate southwards to escape aggressive Aryan advancements around 1500 BC. However, the recorded history of South India, including Tamil Nadu, is available only from the 4th century BC onwards.

The early history of Tamil Nadu, between the periods of 1st - 9th century AD, had been dominated by the Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas rulers. All these dynasties engaged in continual skirmishes; but their steady patronage of arts served the expansion of Dravidian culture. It is also considered the golden period of Tamil literature famously known as " the Sangam Age", which lasted till the end of 3rd century AD. The Sangam literature provides a deep insight into the cultural, social and economic conditions of that period.

The early Cholas ruled Tamil Nadu between 1st and 4th centuries AD. The Cholas ruled the present Tanjore and Tiruchirapalli (Trichy) region and were known for their excellent military expertise. At the peak of their glory, the Chola kings expanded their influence as far as Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in the south and hundreds of kilometers across the northern region. The Cholas were great lovers and patrons of art and architectures in Tamil Nadu. The Brahadeeswara Temple of Tanjore (an UNESCO's World Heritage Site) is a classical example of the magnificent architecture of the Chola kingdom.

During the second half of the 4th century AD, Pallavas emerged into prominence and dominated the region for next 400 years. They ruled the most of the present day northeastern Tamil Nadu, with Kanchipuram emerging as the most important center of their political and cultural activities. During Pallavas, the Dravidian architecture reached its epitome. Popularly referred as "the temple builders," the Pallavas constructed a large number of temples including amazing temples of Mahabalipuram, Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram and the Kapaleswarar Temple at Chennai. In the 6th century AD they defeated the Cholas and their authority reached as far as Sri Lanka. But, the internal feud led a gradual decline of the Pallava dynasty and they lost their supremacy by the end of the 9th century AD, when Aditya Chola defeated them.

The Chola Empire extended its boundaries up to Orissa and parts of West Bengal in the north and to Ceylon in the south by defeating the Pandyas. By the end of 11th century AD, Chalukyas- another famous dynasty of south India- rose into prominence together with the Cholas, but couldn't stand the mighty Chola kingdom for long time. Eventually, Cholas became prominent and ruled Tamil Nadu till the end of the 13th century AD. As Cholas declined, the Pandyas once again emerged into prominence, but soon they were subdued by Muslim invasion from the north, in the beginning of the 14th century AD. The invasion completely destroyed the Chola and Pandya supremacy in the region and led to the establishment of the famous Bahmani Kingdom.

The supremacy of the Bahmani Kingdom in the south was not without challenges as the Vijayanagar Empire emerged as an alternative power and posed a major challenge to Muslim advancement to the south. But, the 1564 battle of Talikota led to the victory of the Muslims and the formidable Vijayanagar Empire came to an end. The Muslims divided the empire into many small kingdoms and was given to the Nayaks to rule. The Nayaks of Madurai and Tanjore were most prominent of them all. The reconstructed some of the oldest temples in the region. The Nayaks were subdued once the Europeans entered into fray for supremacy in the region, with later emerging as victorious.

The East India Company established its factory in Chennai in 1640, which emerged as the most important trading post for the company. Under the British colonial rule, most of the south India was integrated into the region called Madras Presidency. But the British supremacy in the south was not without challenges. The French and Dutch also entered into the fray for supremacy in the region. The British had to fight a number of battles with them, notably the French at Wandiwash in 1760, and the Dutch at Tharangambadi, which led to complete surrender of the Dutch, and reduced the French dominations in India to Pondicherry.

About Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu, the cradle of Dravidian culture, is amongst the most colorful and culturally rich states of India. Located at the southern most tip of India, Tamil Nadu is known for its fascinating cultural heritage, amazing temples and monuments, enchanting beaches and hill stations and the last but not least rich and diverse wildlife population. Tamil Nadu is the land of varied beauty and a wonderful tourists destination to be in. Thousands of tourists from all around the world visit Tamil Nadu to discover the cultural and natural charm of this fascinating part of India.

Tamil Nadu, the land of the Tamils, has a history that dates back to thousands of years. The state is mostly famous for its fascinating cultural heritage and wonderful temples, which represent the finest examples of rich Dravidian architecture. The temples of Tamil Nadu are famous for their towering Gopuram, representing a unique architectural style, a kind of its own in the world. The temple towns of Madurai, Trichy, Kanchipuram, Tanjore, Palani, Tiruvallur and Mahabalipuram, never fail to enchant its visitors with their architectural charm. The 16th century Meenakshi Temple of Madurai with its 1,000 pillar Mandapam, and Brahadeeswara Temple of Tanjore (an UNESCO's World Heritage Site) are amazing Dravidian style architectural masterpieces, attracting thousands of tourists from all over the world. The colorful festivals, unique cuisine and beautiful arts and crafts of Tamil Nadu are other major cultural attractions waiting to be discovered.

Tamil Nadu is not all about temples, but the state has much more to offer to its visitors. There are hundreds of enchanting tourist destinations that will please you and hold you spell bound in Tamil Nadu. The state has some of the most exotic beaches of India, including the Marina Beach- the second longest beach in the world. Other beautiful beaches in Tamil Nadu are Elliot's Beach, the Covelong Beach, Kanyakumari Beach and the Rameshwaram Beach. The beaches of Tamil Nadu are perfect place to enjoy a range of leisure and recreational activities like sunbathing, paragliding, surfing, swimming, parasailing etc. The hill stations of Tamil Nadu are equally charming as are its beaches. Kodaikanal, Coonoor, Kotagiri, Yelagiri, Yercuad, and Udagamandalam boast some of the stunning landscapes in India. Kanyakumari, the southern most tip of India, is famous for its enchanting sunrise, has some of the picture perfect natural sceneries.

Tamil Nadu is also quite rich in flora and fauna. The state has some of the finest wildlife sanctuaries of India like Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Annamalai Wildlife Sanctuary and many more attract thousands of wildlife enthusiasts. The Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary is world-famous for its elephant populations, which can be seen here in large herds, sometimes numbering into hundreds. Tigers, the king of jungles, can also be spotted in the parks and wildlife sanctuaries of Tamil Nadu. The state also has a number of important eco-tourism spots of India, including the famous Pitchavaram Mangrove Forests in Chidambaram.

With so much of varieties to offer, Tamil Nadu is a perfect tourist destination waiting to be discovered by you. India At Its Best welcomes you to Tamil Nadu. Enjoy a holiday in Tamil Nadu with us and discover its fascinating cultural heritage, wonderful temples and monuments, enchanting natural landscapes and amazing wildlife, which would indeed be a lifetime experience for you.

History of Uttarakhand

History

The history of Uttarakhand sings the glorious past of the territory. Uttarakhand has a long history of its genesis, and evolution, that highlights the great emperors, such as the Kushanas, Kudinas, Kanishka, Samudragupta, Katuria, Palas, Chandras and Pawaras.

Talking about the history of Uttarakhand, it can be said that Uttarakhand finds reference in many holy Hindu scriptures. But the history of Uttarakhand can be best understood through the history of Garhwal and Kumaon:

Garhwal:

# The ancient history of Garhwal says that it had once been a part of the Mauryan Empire.
# The history of Garhwal began as a unified whole in the 15th century, when king Ajai Pal merged the 52 principalities of the Garhwal region.
# Garhwal remained a consolidated kingdom for about 300 years, with Srinagar as its capital.
# But during the British Period, the territories of Pauri and Dehradun went under the British domain: the two region were given to the Britishers in return of their help during the Gurkha invasion in the 19th century.

Kumaon:

    * The history of Kumaon can be traced back to the Stone Age.
    * Moreover, the early medieval history of Kumaon started with the Katyuri dynasty that ruled from 7th to the 11th century.
    * Under the Katyuri dynasty, as the ancient history of Uttarakhand suggests, art and architecture flourished tremendously. Many new architectural buildings and designs flourished during this period.
    * However, like all kingdoms that fall after a period of time, Katyuris also lost to the Chands of Pithoragarh.
    * The history of Uttarakhand bears witness to the many temples that were built under the Chands of Pithoragarh.

Thus, it can be said that the history of Uttarakhand is, indeed, a record of the genesis and evolution of Uttarakhand.

 Stone Age

The evidences of the people living in the Stone Age has been found in the state of Uttarakhand in India. The archaeologists opine that there were human settlements in and around the Kumaon region in Uttarakhand from a very ancient time.

The ruins have been unearthed from the various places of the Uttarakhand especially from the rock shelter at Lakhu Udyar which form the testimonials of the civilization dating back to the Stone Age. The paintings that were discovered from this region certainly belong to the Mesolithic period.

The state of Uttarakhand includes the mighty Himalayas which till date serve as the refuge to the hermits in the form of caves and rock shelters. The geologists believe that the Himalayas bear "recent" origin, but nevertheless, they house fossil remains of late Miocene, Pliocene as well as early Pleistocene fauna and to add more to it, there are remnants of the earliest hominids like the Ramapithecus. This again points towards the men of the Stone Age in Uttarakhand.

There have been no paleontological or archaeological investigations in this area. So very little is known of the prehistoric Himalayas treasure. But evidences are there which are enough to prove that the Stone Age man use to live in this part of the world.

    * In Uttarakhand the chief bulk of rock art has been detected in the region near the source of the Suyal, a tributary of river Koshi ling in the Almora district. There are at least 12 sites which house paintings or pale pigment tinges on the rocks. While in the remaining sites, the art of rock is seen in the form of engravings
    * arrangements of dots
    * cup-marks

The chief theme of these paintings are generally the group-dances. The dancers are depicted to be in long rows holding their hands together. They often are seen in long aprons along with heavy headgears. At times you will find the men as well as women along with the goat-like animals but without any weapons.

The figures depicted in the paintings of the Stone Age of Uttarakhand are micropgraphic. They are usually painted in light red, brick red, crimson, white or blackish-green. The animals like ox, goat and fox are frequently found.

 Hindu Legends

The Hindu legends in Uttarakhand have built up centering river Ganga which is the principal river in northern India. The source of Ganga lies in the Gangotri Glacier.

In the Hindu legends of Uttarakhand you will find mention of the divine origin of Ganga. As the legend goes, sage Bhagiratha, by the power of his penance could succeed in making the river to come down off her heavenly abode in order to bless the ashes of his forefathers.

The story of Bhagiratha Prayatna has been mentioned in the Hindu legends of Uttarakhand like the :

# Mahabharata’s Vana Parva
# Bal Kand of Ramayana
# Brahmanda Purana
# Padma Purana
# Bhagwat Purana


The region included in the state of Uttarakhand is often referred to as the “Devbhoomi” since it is related to so many Hindu legends and the people believe that this place is the abode of God. The mention of the Devboomi has been there in the :

    * Ramanyan
    * Mahabharata
    * Agnipurana
    * Skanda Purana
    * Matsya Purana
    * Brahmanda Purana
    * Vishnu Purana
    * Divi Purana
    * Bhagvad Purana

Among the places included in the Hindu legends of Uttarakhand mention may be made of the :

    * Deoprayag : here the Alaknanda river joins the Bhagirathi, the other main source of Ganga.
    * Gangotri : it is seen to follow mountainsides along the Bhagirathi Valley.
    * Gaumukh : the true source of the Ganga. This is a giant ice cave having an altitude of 13,500 feet.
    * Badrinath: a prime pilgrimage center of the Hindus
    * Deoprayag : the sangam
    * Rishikesh: the ultimate point in the Himalaya just before Ganga steps down to the plains.
    * Haridwar : the point where Ganga touches the plains.

Rulers

The land of Uttarakhand has witnessed the rulers from great many dynasties over a long period of historical times. The most notable of these rulers are:

# King Som Chand of the Chand dynasty from Rajasthan who founded the kingdom in the 7th century that later became Kumaon. 9th-11th century saw the Katyuri Dynasty.
# In 869-1065, Khas chieftains went against the Chand dynasty and succeeded.
# In 1065, Vir Chand gets back to Champawat and secured the lost kingdom.
# In the 12th century, Mallas of Dullu in western Nepal broke down the Katyuri kingdom.
# In 1358, King Ajay Pal of the Parmar dynasty ascended the throne of Chandpur.
# In the 1500s, Mughal rulers came here; Garhwal maintained her independence while Kumaon started paying tribute.
# In 1591, there was Battle of Gwaldam .
# In 1631, Mahipat Shah was no more. Queen mother Karnavati succeeded the throne for her young son, Prince Prithvi Pat Shah.
# In 1638, King Baz Bahadur Chand sits on the Kumaoni throne. Then the Kumaon was a tributary state of the Mughal Empire.
# In 1650, King Prithvi Pat Shah became adult and ascended the throne.
# The years of 1667-1715 marks King Fateh Shah's reign.
# 1716-72 marks the rule of Pradip Shah.
# 1780-1781 was the rule of Lalit Shah's eldest son, Jai Krit Shah.
# In 1803-04, there was the Gurkha attack.

Among the most successful rulers in the historical days of the Uttarakhand, mention should be made of those who belonged to the dynasties of Kushanas, Kudinas, Katuris, Mauryas, Chandras, Pawaras and the Pauravas.

History of Tripura

The history of Tripura is a long drawn story which dates back to the time of the Mahabharata. At the very helm of the Kingdom of Tripura, encompassed the whole of Eastern Bengal stretching from the Bay of Bengal in the South to the Brahmaputra river in the North and West and Burma in the East. The earliest trace of the history of Tripura can be found in the Ashokan pillar inscriptions. The history of Tripura points out that around the 7th Century the Tripuri Kings with the title of 'pha' which means father, ruled from the Kailashahar region in North Tripura.

In the 14th Century the history of Tripura witnessed a change with the sifting of the capital from Kailashahar to Udaipur. It was around the same time that the Tripuri kings adopted the title of Manikya and the Manikya dynasty which had a Indo- Mongolian origin ruled Tripura for around 3000 years. This was probably the most glorious episode of the history of Tripura and the dominance of the Manikyas was also acknowledged by the Mughals who were the central rulers.

The 17th Century is a major watershed in the history of Tripura when the administration of the region passed on the hands of the Mughals with some restrained powers of the Manikyas. With the coming of the colonial era the Britishers extended their control over Tripura but granted some independence to the Manikya kings.

The Royal history of Tripura ended in the year 1947 when monarchy in the state was completely terminated. Bir Bikram Kishore Manikya was the last ruling Manikya king of Tripura and it was after his death that Tripura was acceded to the Union of India. In the year 1949 Tripura became an Union Territory of India and remained so until 1972 when it was made a constituent state of the Indian Nation.

Tripura - Origin of Name


Every aspect of the history of Tripura is extremely intriguing and there are a number of controversies regarding Tripura- origin of name. There are a number of historians who debate the origin of the name of Tripura and they put forward a number of theories regarding Tripura- origin of name. A major problem in tracing Tripura- origin of name is the lack of authentic documents on the history of the region. Rajmala is probably the only written document on the region which sheds light on its history.

The Rajmala, which is the court chronicle of Tripura, points out that the region had an ancient king named Tripur. It is believed that Tripur was a tyrant king and many historians argue that it was after him that the region was named. However, this theory about Tripura- origin of name has been challenged by historians who argue that Tripur is an a- historical and imaginary character.

The etymological origin of the word Tripura explains its origin to a large extent. The compound word of Tripura when broken gives two separate words, 'Tui' (water) + 'Pra' (near). The geographical location of the region thoroughly justifies its name.

It is also argued that Tripura is a distortion of the word Twi-bupra. which means confluence of waters and many of the Tripuri Villages are named after the confluence of different rives.

Another very strong probability of Tripura- origin of name is the Temple of Tripureshwari. This Temple in Udaipur is a major pilgrimage spot in the region and is one of the Shakti peeths. 

History of West Bengal

During the period of the Vedic age Bengal was called Vanga and is said to have been inhabited by several groups of people belonging to various races. During the Mahabharatha period this area was divided into small kingdoms and principalities ruled by chieftains. The Aryans inhabited Bengal during the post Vedic period. Many dynasties exercised their control over Bengal. The Palas, Pundras, the Sen etc were a few whose rule was noteworthy. The Palas ruled for more than four hundred years. Owing to its favourable location this region had trade with Cambodia, Burma, Sri Lanka, the Deccan and the Persian Gulf. The Navigable parts of Ganga made it favourable for internal trade and communication. They had contacts till Taxila. In about the 3rd century the Mauryan and the Guptas established their rule. The Palas established their strong rule from about 800AD till the 11th century after which the Senas ruled. The economy, arts and culture of this region developed under the rule of the Hindu dynasties. In the beginning of the 13th century Bengal became a part of the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughals. The influence of the Muslims led to conversions besides development of art and culture and cottage industries that produced items such as Muslin which were in great demand around the world.

The proximity to the sea also resulted in the influence with the foreigners -- the Portuguese in the early 16th century, the Dutch in about 1632, the French influence between 1673-1676, the Danish in 1676 and British in 1690. The increased influence of the British resulted in conflicts with the Nawab. The diplomatic efforts with a series of conspiracies resulted in the ultimate capture of power in Bengal by the British. The battle of Plassey (1757) and the battle of Buxar (1764) sealed the fate of the Mughal rule. The British later brought forth the Dual system of administration  In 1905 the English partitioned Bengal on the basis of religion. Calcutta remained the Capital of the British empire in India till 1911. After that the capital was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi. 

In 1947 when India became independent Bengal was partitioned between India and Pakistan. India's share came to be known as West Bengal and Pakistan's share was called East Pakistan. Later, the state of Cooch Behar, French enclave of Chandranagore and some parts of Bihar were added to West Bengal. Bengal represents the land that possess a distinct culture with its indigenous art and crafts and make it an important part of the Indian Union.

History of Puducherry

The Portuguese have been here. So have the Dutch.. The Danes. The English And the French.

     By 18th century this tiny fishing village had turned into a grand port city. The French first set foot here in 1670 and left a part of them when their undisturbed rule finished in 1954. Not much has changed since. The history has become punctuated.

      The air filled with nostalgia and the present is living up to a heritage that speaks so much. A trip to Puducherry is like a journey in time with a vibrant present celebrating its interesting past. “History goes back to the Roman times, but factually started with the arrival of the French in 1963, who founded the town and built it in its present form, during the two and a half century they occupied it.”

 “Puducherry” is the French interpretation of the original name “Puducheri” meaning “new settlement”. Many pilgrims have shared the town’s hospitality on their way to the temple town of Rameshwaram, thus enriching its culture.

Early Period

     The known history of Puducherry dates back to the beginning of our era. Puducherry also had a flourishing maritime history. Excavations at Arikamedu, about 7 kms to the south of the town, show that Romans came here to trade in the 1st Century AD.

     The trade included dyed textiles, pottery and semi-precious stones. The findings are now displayed in the Puducherry Museum. Ancient Roman scripts mention one of the trade centres along the Indian coast as Poduca or Poduke, which refers, historians affirm, only to the present Puducherry.

     Before this period nothing is known with certainty. The "Bahur Plates", issued in the 8th century speak of a Sanskrit University which was here from an earlier period. Legend has it that the sage Agastya established his Ashram here and the place was known as Agastiswaram. An inscription found near the Vedhapuriswara Temple hints at the credibility of this legend.

     History continues at the beginning of the fourth century A. D. when the Puducherry area is part of the Pallava Kingdom of Kanchipuram. During the next centuries Puducherry is occupied by different dynasties of the south: in the tenth century A.D.

     The Cholas of Tanjavur took over, only to be replaced by the Pandya Kingdom in the thirteenth century. After a brief invasion by the Muslim rulers of the North, who established the Sultanate of Madurai, the Vijayanagar Empire took control of almost all the South of India and lasted till 1638, when the Sultan of Bijapur began to rule over Gingee.

Foreign contacts

     Unlike the Arab merchants, who had been sailing the coasts of India since times immemorable, the impact of European contact had far reaching consequences in terms of establishments and in the end the occupation of the entire Subcontinent.

     In 1497 the Portuguese discovered the route to India and began to expand their influence by occupying coastal areas and building harbour towns, which soon extended more than 12.000 miles of coast-line.
     The Portuguese established a factory in Puducherry at the beginning of the sixteenth century, but were compelled to leave a century later by the ruler of Gingee, who found them unfriendly. After that the Danes shortly set up an establishment, and likewise the Dutch. The latter set up trading posts in Porto Novo and Cuddalore. The French, who had trading centres in the North, Mahe and Madras were invited to open a trading centre in Puducherry by the new ruler of Gingee to compete with the Dutch.

     In 1673, February 4th, Bellanger, a French officer, took up residence in the Danish Lodge in Puducherry and the French Period of Puducherry began.In 1674 Francois Martin, the first Governor, started to build Puducherry and transformed it from a small fishing village into a flourishing port-town.

     In 1693 the Dutch took over and fortified the town considerably. But four years later Holland and France signed a peace treaty and the French regained Puducherry in 1699. In the 18th century the town was laid out on a grid pattern and grew considerably.

     Able Governors like Lenoir (1726-1735) and Dumas (1735-1741) and an ambitious Governor Dupleix (1742-1754) expanded the Puducherry area and made it a large and rich town. But ambition clashed with the English interests in India and the local kingdoms and a period of skirmishes and political intrigues began. Under the command of Bussy, Dupleix's army successfully controlled the area between Hyderabad and Cape Comorin. But then Robert Clive arrived in India, a dare-devil officer who dashed the hopes of Dupleix to create a French Colonial India. After a defeat and failed peace talks, Dupleix was recalled to France.

     In spite of a treaty between the English and French not to interfere in local politics, the intrigues continued. Subsequently France sent Lally Tollendal to regain the French losses and chase the English out of India. After an initial success they razed Fort St. David in Cuddalore to the ground, but stategic mistakes by Lally led to the loss of the Hyderabad region and the siege of Puducherry in 1760. In 1761 Puducherry was razed to the ground in revenge and lay in ruins for 4 years. The French had lost their hold in South India.


      In 1765 the town is returned to France after a peace treaty with England in Europe. Governor Law de Lauriston set to rebuild the town on the old foundations and after five months 200 European and 2000 Tamil houses had been erected. During the next 50 years Puducherry changed hands between France and England with the regularity of their wars and peace treaties.


     Only after 1816 the French regained permanent control of Puducherry, but the town had lost much of its former glory. Successive Governors improved infrastructure, industry, law and education over the next 138 years. In 1947 the English left India for good, but it lasted till 1954 when the French handed Puducherry over to an independent India.

After Independent

     On November 1, 1954, the French possessions in India were de facto transferred to the Indian Union and Puducherry became a Union Territory. 280 years of French rule had come to an end. But only in 1963 Puducherry became officially an integral part of India after the French Parliament in Paris rattified the Treaty with India.

     Puducherry became a Union Territory, not a separate State. A Union Territory (UT) has its own government but falls directly under the Central Government in New Delhi. Though a UT also has an elected Chief Minister and cabinet members, laws and legislative regulations made in these areas have to get sanction or need to be ratified by the Central Government (Centre).

     The Centre is represented by the Lt. Governor, who resides at the Raj Nivas at the Park, the former palace of the French Governor.Puducherry still has a large number of Tamil residents with French passports, whose ancestors were in French Governmental service and who chose to remain French at the time of Independence. Apart from the monuments pertaining to the French Period, there is the French Consulate in Puducherry and several cultural organisation, and even the Foyer du Soldat for war veterans of the French Army.   Of the cultural organisations the French Institute, the Alliance Francais and the Ecole Francais d'Extrème Orient are noteworthy.

History of Orissa

The history of Orissa makes an interesting case-study in that it's history is in many ways atypical from that of the northern plains and many of the common generalizations that are made about Indian history do not seem to apply to the Oriya region.

The word Oriya is an anglicised version of Odia which itself is a modern name for the Odra or Udra tribes that inhabited the central belt of modern Orissa. Orissa has also been the home of the Kalinga and Utkal tribes that played a particularly prominent role in the region's history, and one of the earliest references to the ancient Kalingas appears in the writings of Vedic chroniclers. In the 6th C. BC, Vedic Sutrakara Baudhayana mentions Kalinga as being beyond the Vedic fold, indicating that Brahminical influences had not yet touched the land. Unlike some other parts of India, tribal customs and traditions played a significant role in shaping political structures and cultural practices right up to the 15th C. when Brahminical influences triumphed over competing traditions and caste differentiation began to inhibit social mobility and erode what had survived of the ancient republican tradition.

Kalinga

Very early in Kalingan history, the Kalingas acquired a reputation for being a fiercely independant people. Ashoka's military campaign against Kalinga was one of the bloodiest in Mauryan history on account of the fearless and heroic resistance offered by the Kalingas to the mighty armies of the expanding Mauryan empire. Perhaps on account of their unexpected bravery, emperor Ashoka was compelled to issue two edicts specifically calling for a just and benign administration in Kalinga.

Unsurprisingly, Mauryan rule over Kalinga did not last long. By the 1st C. BC, Kalinga's Jain identified ruler Kharavela had become the pre-eminent monarch of much of the sub-continent and Mauryan Magadha had become a province of the Kalingan empire. The earliest surviving monuments of Orissa (in Udaigiri near Bhubaneshwar) date from his reign, and surviving inscriptions mention that Prince Kharavela was trained not only in the military arts, but also in literature, mathematics, and the social sciences. He was also reputed to be a great patron of the arts and was credited with encouraging dance and theater in his capital.

Although the bravery of the Kalingas became legendary, and finds mention in the Sahitya Darpan, it is important to note that a hereditary warrior caste like the Kshatriyas did not take hold in the region. Soldiers were drawn from the peasantry as needed and rank in the military depended as much on fighting skills and bravery as on hereditary factors. In this (and other) respects, Oriya history resembles more the history of the nations of South East Asia, and may have been one of the features of Oriya society that allowed it to successfully fend off 300 years of raids initiated by numerous Islamic rulers untill the 16th century.

Metallurgy, Crafts and Trade

Owing to it's vast mineral resources, metallurgy developed quite naturally in ancient Orissa and may have been an additional factor in catapulting the region to considerable importance during the iron age. Iron tools were used in agricultural production, digging irrigation canals, stone-quarrying, cave excavation and later monumental architecture. Rice cultivation got a particular fillip and during the iron age irrigation works from Orissa spread to the regions of ancient Andhra and Tamil Nadu around 300 BC (See M.S. Randhawa: A history of agriculture in India, Vol. 1. New Delhi.) Orissa also became a major steel producing centre and steel beams were extensively used in the monumental temples of Bhubaneshwar and Puri.

Being a coastal region, maritime trade played an important role in the development of Oriya civilization. Cultural, commercial and political contacts with South East Asia, particularly Southern Burma, Malaysia and Indonesia were especially extensive and maritime enterprises play an interesting part in Oriya folk-tales and poetry. Historical records suggest that around the 7th C. AD, the Kongoda dynasty from central Orissa may have migrated to Malaysia and Indonesia. There is also evidence of exchange of embassies with China. Records of Oriya traders being active in the ports of South East Asia are fairly numerous and in his descriptions of Malacca, Portuguese merchant Tome Pires indicates that traders from Orissa were active in the busy port as late as the 16th C.

(There is evidence to suggest that trade contact between Eastern India and Thailand may date as far back as the 3rd or 4th C BC. Himanshu Ray (The Winds of Change - Buddhism and the Maritime Links of Early South Asia) suggests that at least eight oceanic routes linked the Eastern Coast of India with the Malayan pensinsula, and after the Iron Age, metals (such as iron, copper and tin), cotton textiles and foodstuffs comprised the trade. She also suggests that the trade involved both Indian and Malayo-Polynesian ships. Archealogical evidence from Sisupalgarh (near Bhubaneshwar) in Orissa suggests that there may also have been direct or indirect trade contacts between ancient Orissa and Rome dating to the 1st-2nd C AD (or possibly earlier). The chronicles of Huen Tsang refer to Orissa's overseas contacts in the 7th C, and by the 10th C, records of Orissa's trade with the East begin to proliferate.)

Adequate agricultural production combined with a flourishing maritime trade contributed to a flowering of Orissan arts and crafts especially textiles. Numerous communities of weavers and dyers became active throughout the state perfecting techniques like weaving of fine Muslins, Ikat, Sambalpuri and Bomkai silks and cottons, applique and embroidery. Orissa was also known for it's brass and bell metal work, lacquered boxes and toys, intricate ivory, wood and stone carvings, patta painting and palm leaf engraving, basket weaving and numerous other colorful crafts. Often, decorative techniques relied on folk idioms as in the painted, circular playing cards known as Ganjifas.

Later, Cuttack became the centre for lace-like exquisite silver filigree work, (known as Tarakashi) when Orissa was brought under Mughal rule.

Philosophy, Language and Idealogy

Both Buddhism and Jainism played an important role in the cultural and philosophical developments of early Oriya civilization. Most Buddhist and Jain texts were written in Pali-Prakrit and the Prakrita Sarvasva, a celebrated Prakrit grammar text was authored by Markandeya Das, an Oriya. Kharavela's Hatigumpha inscription is in Pali, leading to the speculation that Pali may have been the original language of the Oriya people.

By the 7th C. AD, Brahminism had also become influential, especially in the courts and Hiuen Tsang (the well-known Chinese chronicler) observed how Buddhist Viharas and Brahminic temples flourished side by side. And although royal inscriptions of this time were in Sanskrit, the most commonly spoken language was not, and according to Hiuen Tsang appeared to be quite distinct from the language of Central India, and may have been a precursor of modern day Oriya.

But even as the Bhauma Kings of the 6th-8th C issued edicts in Sanskrit, they patronized numerous Buddhist institutions and the art, architecture and poetry of the period reflected the popularity of Buddhism in the region.

Later, Orissa's Buddhism came to be modulated by strong Tantric influences, while a more traditional Vedic and Brahminical version of Hinduism was brought to Orissa by Brahmins from Kannauj. Shaivism from the South was institutionalized in Puri. In addition, the majority of Orissa's adivasis continued to practice some form of animism and totem-worship. Unifying all these different traditions was the Shiva-Shakti cult which evolved from an amalgamation of Shaivism (worship of Shiva), Shaktism (worship of the Mother Goddess) and the Vajrayana, or Tantric form of Mahayana Buddism.

What made possible this fusion was that apart from the formal distinctions that separated these different religious and philosophical trends, in practical matters, there was a growing similiarity between them. Whereas early Buddhism and the Nyaya school within Hinduism had laid considerable stress on rationalism and scientific investigation of nature, later Buddhism and the Shaivite schools both emphasized philosphical variants of concepts first developed in the Upanishads, along with mysticism and devotion. Tantrism had also developed along a dual track - on the one hand it had laid emphasis on gaining practical knowledge and a clear understanding of nature - on the other, it too came steeped in mysticism and magic.

At the same time, the Buddhist ethos had created an environment where compromise was preferred to confrontation. This allowed tribal deities and gods and goddesses associated with numerous fertility cults to be integrated into the Hindu pantheon. Tantric constructs also met with some degree of approval.

Since Tantrism emphasized the erotic as a means to spiritual salvation, the culture of austerity and sexual abstinence that had pervaded early Buddhism was replaced with an unapologetic embrace of all that was erotic.

Unlike some other parts of India, Oriya society had not yet been deeply differentiated by caste, and egalitarian values remained well-ingrained amongst the peasant masses. Hence, any idealogy that championed a hierarchical division of society would have been unacceptable. The Shiva Shakti cult was a compromise in that while it did not exclude social inequality, it did not preclude social mobility either. In fact, the cult became popular precisely because it articulated the possibility of upward mobility through the acquisition of knowledge, skill or energetic personal effort.

Yogini Cults

Tantric influences were of particular import for the survival of the Yogini cults in Orissa. The Yogini cults concentrated on worship of the shakti (female life force), with a belief in the efficacy of magic ritual. In ancient texts, Yoginis are depicted as consorts of Yogis, and like their male companions practiced yoga to gain mastery over science and acquire magical powers. Some tantric schools associated with the Yogini cults such as the Kaula Marga prescribed Maithuna (sexual intercourse) with outcast women or women of low caste as the most consummate soul-lifting experience. Although Yogini cults were not unique to Orissa, two out of four surviving Yogini temples are to be found in Hirapur and Ranipur-Jharial.

The Hirapur temple is ascribed to the Bhauma and Somavansi rulers of Orissa (mid 8th - mid 10th C. AD) who were known for their eclectic liberalism and noted for their patronage of philosophy, art, architecture and literature.

Popular Literature

While the literature of the court and the intelligentsia was primarily written in Sanskrit, and included a variety of commentaries and theoretical treatises on religion, politics, art and literature as well as reworks of the epics, popular literature in Oriya initially focused on folk tales, ballades, creation myths, devotional songs, love poetry and erotica.

But in the 15th century, the Gangas who were patrons of many of Orissa's monumental temples were defeated by Kapilendra Deva, who rose from the ranks to found the Surya dynasty. It was in his reign that Sarala Das wrote a popular Oriya version of the Mahabharatha. Sarala Das arose from a peasant family and took his name from the goddess Sarala who was worshipped in his village in the district of Cuttack. He described himself as an unschooled 'Shudra' and became popularly known as Shudra-muni. Although the broad themes his Mahabharatha match other traditional versions, there is much that was original and written with a popular sensibility. His version knitted in local folk tales and ballads, and incorporated the ethical and moral values then embraced by the artisan class and peasantry.

The Chandi Purana, also written by Sarala Das referred to Yoginis as forms of the Devi or the Supreme Goddess illustrating the continued popular appeal of the Yogini cults in Orissa's coastal belt.

Thus what emerged in Orissa from the 9th century on was a heady cocktail of mystical and practical currents that allowed for a certain degree of social mobility and provided space for ordinary peasants to make contributions to popular literature and poetry.

This stimulated the popularity of reading and since there were no taboos against learning Oriya, literacy spread in the villages and such popular literature developed a wide mass following. A network of village libraries housed popular texts in neatly transcribed versions. Illuminated manuscripts and illustrated epics also became popular. By some accounts, literacy in many villages reached 40% or more before the onslaught of colonial rule.

Decline of Oriya Civilization

The first signsof decline in Oriya society came as the administrators of the Ganga and Surya kings began to usurp undue privileges and acquire a greater number of hereditary rights. At the same time, religious affairs began to be dominated by the Puri Brahmins who were instrumental in promoting ever increasing ritual and unprecedented ceremonial pomp during religious festivals. Tribal deities were slowly edged out as Brahminical gods acquired supremacy. Social mobility declined and the first concrete appearances of a formalized caste system began to appear. The Patnaiks, Mahapatras, Nayakas and others who had played a major role in the royal adminstration, along with the Brahmins comprised the upper-caste elite as social stratification crystallized.

The silting up of Orissa's major rivers in the 16th C. led to a severe decline in maritime trade and may have further aggravated socially regressive trends. Orissa also suffered decisive defeats at the hands of Raja Man Singh (Akbar's military general) and the Marathas, leaving it dismembered and particularly vulnerable against the British who colonized it soon after the victory in Bengal.

Orissa during Colonial Rule
 
Like much of India, colonial rule had a devastating impact on the economic and social life of the Oriya people. Numerous categories of crafts workers, especially weavers and dyers were bankrupted and reduced to abject poverty. The peasantry suffered under the burden of back-breaking taxes and forced unpaid labour. But the Oriyas did not accept subjugation without putting up heroic resistance. Just three years after British occupation, Jayakrishna Rajguru - hereditary priest of the Gajapatis (or the Rajas of Khurda) organized a revolt that ended in tragic defeat and his public hanging at the hands of the British. In 1818 there was another revolt when the entire state rose up under the leadership of Bakshi Jagabandhu Vidyadhara of Khurda. For six months the people of Southern Orissa were practically freed from British rule but in the end the rebellion was ruthlessly quelled and the aftermath was to be disastrous.

The nobility was systematically decimated, the Paikas - the national militia were disarmed and disinherited, and the peasantry already reduced to virtual slavery. All administrative posts not directly handled by the British were assigned to Bengalis who were perceived to be more loyal to British rule. From local police constables to assistant school teachers - Bengalis were hired but Oriyas excluded. Bengali chauvinists in Calcutta defended such a regime, some even going to the extent of demanding that all Oriyas be taught in Bengali since Oriya was nothing but a minor dialect of Bengali.

Even as urban Bengal received a few concessions like the founding of universities and cultural societies - Orissa was reduced to a minor outpost of the colonial empire - a cultural wasteland. Orissa's future was now inextricably linked to the growth of the national struggle in Bengal and the rest of the country, and any hint of growth in the national movement naturally drew enthusiastic support from nationalist-minded Oriyas.

Although independence brought about dramatic improvements in the lives of all sections of the population, two centuries of damage wrought by colonial rule could not be easily undone after independence. As evident from recent census results, high levels of poverty and illiteracy continue to dog the state.

For Orissa to regain it's ancient vitality, it will require not only greater sympathy from other Indians but a conscious programme of affirmative action from the centre that promotes mass education and employment opportunities so that Orissa can fully join the Indian mainstream as a vibrant and equal member of the Indian union.

Note: References to ancient Orissa may well include parts of Jharkhand, Southern Bengal, Chhatisgarh and Northern Andhra - which at various times were politically integrated into the different kingdoms of ancient and medieval Orissa.

History of Nagaland

The early history of Nagaland is the customs, economic activities of the Naga tribes. The people were originally referred to as Chingmee (Hill People) or Hao (Tribes) in the history of Manipur. The Naga tribes had socio-economic and political links with tribes in Assam and Burma - (officially called Myanmar by the current ruling military junta)even today a large population of Naga inhabits Assam. Following an invasion in 1816, the area along with Assam came under direct rule of Burma. This period was noted for the oppressive rule and turmoil in Assam and Nagaland. When the British East India Company took control of Assam in 1826, they steadily expanded their domain over modern Nagaland. By 1892, all of modern Nagaland except the Tuensang area in the northeast was governed by the British. It was politically amalgamated into Assam. The Christian missionaries played an important part in transforming Nagaland. Many Naga tribes embraced Christianity, in particular the Baptist faith.

After the independence of India in 1947, the area remained a part of the province of Assam. Nationalist activities arose amongst Naga tribes, who demanded a political union of their ancestral and native groups damaged government and civil infrastructure, and attacked government officials and Indians from other states. The Union government sent the Indian Army in 1955, to restore order. In 1957, the Government began diplomatic talks with representatives of Naga tribes, and the Naga Hills district of Assam and the Tuensang frontier were united in a single political entity that became a Union territory - directly administered by the Central government with a large degree of autonomy. This was not satisfactory to the tribes, however, and soon agitation and violence increased across the state - included attacks on Army and government institutions, as well as civil disobedience and non-payment of taxes. In July 1960, a further political accord was reached at the Naga People's Convention that Nagaland should become a constituent and self-governing state in the Indian union. Statehood was officially granted in 1963 and the first state-level democratic elections were held in 1964. Insurgencies were quelled in the early 1980s. Violence had re-erupted and there was conflict between rebel group factions till the late 1990s. On 25 July, 1997, Prime Minister Inder Kumar Gujral announced that the Government after talks with Isaac group of the Nationalist Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) declared a cease-fire or cessation of operations with effect from 1st August, 1997 for a period of three months. The cease-fire has since been extended.

History of Mizoram

The history of Mizoram dates back to early 16th century when the tribes known as Mizos were migrated from China and settled in the Shan State. They moved on to Kabaw Valley to Khampat and then to the Chin Hills in the middle of this century. The earliest Mizos who migrated to India were known as Kukis and the second batch of immigrants were called as New Kukis.

The history of Mizoram in between 18th and 19th Century is marked by many instances of tribal raids and retaliatory expeditions of security. Mizo Hills were formally declared as part of the British-India by a proclamation in 1895. North and south hills were united into Lushai Hills district in 1898 with Aizawl as its headquarters.

The British continued to rule over the tribal dominated area of Assam from 1919 and during this period Lushai Hills along with some other hill districts was declared a Backward Tract under government of India Act. The tribal districts of Assam including Lushai Hills were declared Excluded Area in 1935.

During British period the political development in the state became significant and the first political party i.e. Mizo Common People's Union was formed on 9th April 1946. The party was later rechristened as Mizo Union. With India’s independence in 1947, the constituent assembly set up an advisory committee to entertain the matters related to minorities and the tribals of the north eastern region. A sub-Committee, under the chairmanship of Gopinath Bordoloi was formed to advise the Constituent Assembly on the tribal affairs in the North East.

Following the Bordoloi Sub-Committee's suggestion, a certain amount of autonomy was accepted by the Government and enshrined in the Six Schedule of the constitution. The Lushai Hills Autonomous District Council came into being in 1952 followed by the formation of these bodies led to the abolition of chieftainship in the Mizo society.

The autonomy however met the aspirations of the Mizos only partially. Representatives of the District Council and the Mizo Union pleaded with the States Reorganization Commission (SRC) in 1954 for integrated the Mizo-dominated areas of Tripura and Manipur with their District Council in Assam.

The Mizo tribal leaders were not happy with the SRC recommendations. They raised demand for a separate state comprising of all hill districts of Assam. They met in Aizwal in 1955 and formed a new political party, Eastern India Union (EITU). The protests continued for over three decades and finally the hill problems were realized by the government of India. Mizoram was given a full fledged status of a state only on 20 Feb, 1987 by an amendment in the constitution of India.

History of Meghalaya

Meghalaya has precise historic, geographic and strategic significance for India. Meghalaya "the home of clouds", became a full-fledged State on January 21, 1972. It is surrounded on the north by Goalpara, Kamrup, Nagoan and Karbi Anglong districts of Assam State, and on the east by the Districts of Cachar and North Cachar Hills, also of the State of Assam. On the south and west is Bangladesh. Meghalaya is predominantly domesticated by the Khasis, the Jaintias and the Garos. These tribal communities are the descendents of very ancient people having distinct traits and ethnic origins.

The History

There are different legends, beliefs and findings about the Khasis, Jaintias and Garos. It is said that Khasis were the earliest immigrants who made their way across northern Myanmar to Khasi in the plain of East Assam where they established new centre. Khasis linguistically represents the Mon-khmer speeches spoken in South-East Asia.

Khasi Hills Meghalaya
 
The Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia tribes each had their own kingdoms, until they came under the British administration them in the 19th century. Eventually, the British incorporated Meghalaya into Assam in 1835. After the Independence in 1947, Meghalaya was given autonomous status within Assam. However the Meghalayans were not satisfied with the arrangement and started a peaceful and constitutional struggle for more independence. The turning point in their struggle came when Assam introduced Assamese as the state language, a language unknown to the tribes of Meghalaya. The Centre recognised their plight and their right for a state of their own. In the year 1972, Meghalaya became a full-fledged state in the Republic of India.

The Physiology of Meghalaya
 
South of Assam, Meghalaya, situated in the north-eastern region of India, between the Brahmaputra valley in the north and the Bangladesh in the south. The state of Meghalaya (the abode of clouds) in India is geographically known as the "Meghalaya Plateau" or the "Shillong Plateau". The area is made of the oldest rock-formations. Meghalaya consists of the Garo Hills , Khasi HIlls and Jaintia hills along with their outliers formed by the Assam ranges. It is the detached north-eastern extension of the Peninsular India. Part of it lies buried under the alluvium deposited by the Ganga-Brahmaputra system of rivers. This gap is known as Malda gap (between Raj Mahal hills/Chhota Nagpur and the Shillong Plateau).

Nestled in the hills of eastern sub-Himalayas is Meghalaya is one of the most alluring state in the country. It is blessed with abundant rainfall, sun-shine, virgin forests, high plateaus, crystal clear rivers, tumbling waterfalls, meandering streamlets and above all with hardy, intelligent and hospitable people.

History of Manipur

Manipur came under British rule as a princely state in 1891. British rule ended the independent status of the Kingdom which was the last kingdom to be incorporated into British India.

During the Second World War, Manipur was the scene of many fierce battles between the Japanese and Allied forces. The Japanese were beaten back before they could enter Imphal and this proved to be one of the turning points of the War.

After the Second World War, the Manipur Constitution Act, 1947, established a democratic form of government with the Maharaja as the Executive Head and an elected legislature. In 1949, King Prabodhchandra was summoned to Shillong, capital of the Indian province of Assam. He signed a Treaty of Accession merging the kingdom into India . The legislative assembly was dissolved on the integration of the state with the republic of India in October, 1949. Manipur was a union territory from 1956 and later became a full-fledged state in 1972.

Maharaja Bhagyachandra (1762 - 1798 A.D.), was the ruler of Manipur and had to fight off the Burmese many times. The inventor of the Ras Lila dance, he is a legendary figure in Manipur.He is also credited with spreading Vaishnavism in Manipur after his grandfather Pamheiba Rajah made Hinduism the official religion and for creating a unified Manipur.

History of Maharashtra

The name Maharashtra first appeared in a 7th century inscription and in the account of a Chinese traveler, Hiuen-Tsang. Its name may[who?] have originated from rathi, which means, "chariot driver". At that age Maharashtra was full of builders and drivers of chariots who formed a maharathis, a "fighting force."[citation needed] In 90 A.D. Vedishri, son of the Satavahana king Satakarni, the "Lord of Dakshinapatha, wielder of the unchecked wheel of Sovereignty", made Junnar, thirty miles north of Pune, the capital of his kingdom. In the early fourteenth century the Devgiri Yadavs were overthrown by the northern Muslim powers. Then on, the region was administered by various kingdoms called Deccan Sultanates.

Pre Medieval history

Not much is known about Maharashtra's early history, and its recorded history dates back to the 3rd century B.C.E., with the use of Maharashtri Prakrit, one of the Prakrits derived from Sanskrit. Later,{needs date} Maharashtra became a part of the Magadha empire, ruled by emperor Ashoka. The port town of Sopara, north of present day Mumbai, was the centre of ancient India's commerce, with links to Eastern Africa, Mesopotamia, Aden and Cochin.

With the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire, a local dynasty called Satavahanas came into prominence in Maharashtra between 230 B.C.E. and 225 C.E. The period saw the biggest cultural development of Maharashtra. The Satavahana's official language was Maharashtri, which later developed into Marathi. The great ruler Gautamiputra Satkarni (also known as "Shalivahan") ruled around 78 C.E. He started the Shalivahana era, a new calendar, still used by Maharashtrian populace and as the Indian national calendar. The empire gradually disintegrated in the third century.

During (250 C.E. – 525 C.E.), Vidarbha, the eastern region of Maharashtra, came under the rule of Vakatakas. During this period, development of arts, religion and technology flourished. Later, in 753 C.E., the region was governed by the Rashtrakutas, an empire that spread over most of India. In 973 C.E., the Chalukyas of Badami expelled the Rashtrakutas, and ruled parts of Maharashtra until 1189 when the region came under the Yadavas of Deogiri.

Islamic Rule

Maharashtra came under Islamic influence for the first time after the Delhi Sultanate rulers Ala-ud-din Khalji, and later Muhammad bin Tughluq conquered parts of the Deccan in the 13th century. After the collapse of the Tughlaqs in 1347, the Bahmani Sultanate of Gulbarga took over, governing the region for the next 150 years. After the breakup of the Bahamani sultanate, in 1518, Maharashtra was ruled by the breakaway in to 5 Shah's, namely Nizamshah of Ahmednagar, Adilshah of Bijapur, kutubshah of Govalkonda, bidarhshae of Bidar and Imadshah of Berar.

Rise of the Marathas

By the early seventeenth century, the Maratha Empire began to take root. Shahaji Bhosale, an ambitious local general in the employ of the Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur, at various times attempted to establish his independent rule. The attempts succeeded through his son Shivaji Bhosale. Marathas were led by Chhatrapati Raje Shivaji Bhosale, who was crowned king in 1674. Shivaji constantly battled with the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb and Adil Shah of Vijapur. By the time of his death in 1680, Shivaji had created a kingdom covering most of Maharashtra today (except the Aurangabad district which was part of the Nizam's territory) and Gujarat.

Shivaji's son and successor Chhatrapatti Sambhaji Bhosale became the ruler of the Maratha kingdom in 1680. He was captured by Aurangzeb.

Rajaram's nephew & Sambhaji's son, Shahu Bhosale declared himself to be the legitimate heir to the Bhosale throne. In 1714, Shahu's Peshwa (chief minister) Balaji Vishwanath, helped him seize the Maratha throne in 1708, with some acrimony from Rajaram's widow, Tara Bai.

Peshwas under Chatrapati

The Peshwe (prime ministers) played an important role in the strategic development of many forts in Maharastra. They were also decisive in many battles, like Moropant Pingale in 1670’s Dindori battle against the Mughals, Ramchandra Amatya in 1690’s Satara Battle against the Mughals and, the Pant Pratinidhi Peshwa against fort recapturing battles fought between 1702-1706.

Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, of the Bhat family, and his son, Baji Rao I, bureaucratised the Maratha state. They systematised the practice of tribute gathering from Mughal territories, under the heads of sardesmukhi and chauth (the two terms corresponding to the proportion of revenue collected). They also consolidated Mughal-derived methods of assessment and collection of land revenue and other taxes. Much of the revenue terminology used in Peshwa documents derives from Persian, suggesting a far greater continuity between Mughal and Maratha revenue practice than may be politically palatable in the present day.

At the same time,the maritime Angre clan controlled a fleet of vessels based in Kolaba and other centres of the west coast. These ships posed a threat not only to the new English settlement of Bombay, but to the Portuguese at Goa, Bassein, and Daman.

On the other hand, there emerged a far larger domain of activity away from the original heartland of the Marathas, which was given over to subordinate chiefs as fiefs. Gwalior was given to Scindia/Shinde, Indore to Holkar, Baroda to Gaekwad and Dhar to Pawar.

After suffering a stinging defeat at the hands of Afghan chieftain Ahmad Shah Abdali, in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Maratha Confederacy broke into regional kingdoms.

Post-Panipat, the Peshwa's ex-generals looked after the regional kingdoms they had earned and carved out for themselves in the service of Peshwas covering north-central and Deccan regions of India. Pune continued to be ruled by what was left of the Peshwa family.

British Rule and Post-Independence

With the arrival and subsequent involvement of the British East India Company in Indian politics, the Marathas and the British fought the three Anglo-Maratha wars between 1777 and 1818, culminating in the annexation of Peshwa-ruled territory in Maharashtra in 1819, which heralded the end of the Maratha empire.

The British governed the region as part of the Bombay Presidency, which spanned an area from Karachi in Pakistan to most of the northern Deccan. A number of the Maratha states persisted as princely states, retaining local autonomy in return for acknowledging British sovereignty. The largest princely states in the territory of present-day Maharashtra were Nagpur, Satara and Kolhapur; Satara was annexed to Bombay Presidency in 1848, and Nagpur was annexed in 1853 to become Nagpur Province, later part of the Central Provinces. Berar, which had been part of the Nizam of Hyderabad's kingdom, was occupied by the British in 1853 and annexed to the Central Provinces in 1903. A large part of present day Maharashtra called Marathwada remained part of the Nizam's Hyderabad state during British rule. The British rule was marked by social reforms, an improvement in infrastructure as well revolts due to their discriminatory policies. At the beginning of the 20th century, the struggle for independence took shape led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and the moderates like Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Agarkar, Pherozeshah Mehta and Dadabhai Naoroji. In 1942, the Quit India Movement was called by Mahatma Gandhi which was marked by a non-violent civil disobedience movement and strikes.

After India's independence in 1947, the princely states were integrated into the Indian Union, and the Deccan States including Kolhapur were integrated into Bombay State, which was created from the former Bombay Presidency in 1950. In 1956, the States Reorganisation Act reorganized the Indian states along linguistic lines, and Bombay Presidency State was enlarged by the addition of the predominantly Marathi-speaking regions of Marathwada (Aurangabad Division) from erstwhile Hyderabad state and Vidarbha region (Amravati and Nagpur divisions) from Madhya Pradesh (formerly the Central Provinces and Berar). On May 1, 1960, Maharashtra came into existence when Bombay Presidency State was split into the new linguistic states of Maharashtra and Gujarat.

History of Madhya Pradesh

Ancient

The city of Ujjain (also known as Avanti) arose as a major center in the second wave of Indian urbanization in the sixth century BC, and served as the chief city of the kingdom of Malwa or Avanti. Further east, the kingdom of Chedi lie in Bundelkhand. Chandragupta Maurya united northern India c. 320 BCE, establishing the Maurya empire (321 to 185 BCE), which included all of modern-day Madhya Pradesh. King Ashoka's wife was said to come from Vidisha- a town north of today's Bhopal. The Maurya empire went into decline after the death of Asoka, and Central India was contested among the Sakas, Kushanas, and local dynasties during the 3rd to 1st centuries BCE. Ujjain emerged as the predominant commercial center of western India from the first century BCE, located on the trade routes between the Ganges plain and India's Arabian Sea ports. It was also an important Hindu and Buddhist center. The Satavahana dynasty of the northern Deccan and the Saka dynasty of the Western Satraps fought for the control of Madhya Pradesh during the 1st to 3rd centuries CE.

Northern India was conquered by the Gupta empire in the 4th and 5th centuries, which became known as India's "classical age". The Vakataka dynasty were the southern neighbors of the Guptas, ruling the northern Deccan plateau from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. These empires collapsed towards the end of the 5th century.

Medieval

The attacks of the Hephthalites or White Huns brought about the collapse of the Gupta empire, and India broke up into smaller states. A king Yasodharman of Malwa defeated the Huns in 528, ending their expansion. King Harsha of Thanesar reunited northern India for a few decades before his death in 647. The Medieval period saw the rise of the Rajput clans, including the Paramaras of Malwa and the Chandelas of Bundelkhand. The Paramara king Bhoj (c. 1010-1060) was a brilliant polymath and prolific writer. The Chandelas created the temple city of Khajuraho between c. 950 and c. 1050. Gond kingdoms emerged in Gondwana and Mahakoshal. Northern Madhya Pradesh was conquered by the Muslim Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century. After the collapse of the Delhi Sultanate at the end of the 14th century, independent regional kingdoms reemerged, including the Tomara Rajput kingdom of Gwalior and the Muslim Sultanate of Malwa, with its capital at Mandu. The Malwa Sultanate was conquered by the Sultanate of Gujarat in 1531.

Modern

Most of Madhya Pradesh came under Mughal rule during the reign of the emperor Akbar (1556–1605). Gondwana and Mahakoshal remained under the control of Gond kings, who acknowledged Mughal supremacy but enjoyed virtual autonomy. After the death of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1707 Mughal control began to weaken, and the Marathas began to expand from their base in central Maharashtra. Between 1720 and 1760 the Marathas took control of most of Madhya Pradesh, and Maratha clans were established semi-autonomous states under the nominal control of the Maratha Peshwa. The Holkars of Indore ruled much of Malwa, and the Bhonsles of Nagpur dominated Mahakoshal and Gondwana as well as Vidarbha in Maharashtra. Jhansi was founded by a Maratha general. Bhopal was ruled by a Muslim dynasty descended from the Afghan General Dost Mohammed Khan. Maratha expansion was checked at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.

The British were expanding their Indian dominions from bases in Bengal, Bombay, and Madras, and the three Anglo-Maratha Wars were fought between 1775 and 1818. The Third Anglo-Maratha War left the British supreme in India. Most of Madhya Pradesh, including the large states of Indore, Bhopal, Nagpur, Rewa, and dozens of smaller states, became princely states of British India, and the Mahakoshal region became a British province, the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories. In 1853 the British annexed the state of Nagpur, which included southeastern Madhya Pradesh, eastern Maharashtra and most of Chhattisgarh, which were combined with the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories to form the Central Provinces in 1861. The princely states of northern Madhya Pradesh were governed by the Central India Agency.

After the recent discovery in July 2007, of ruby ore in the region it has been overwhelmed by mining companies and individuals seeking work. This has led to a massive surge in population that has subsequently caused a reported 283% increase in crime as well as a massive outbreak of dysentery in several areas of Madhya Pradesh. A recent government report has declared parts of the region as "Overwhelmed by disease... in need of a greater military presence" The government has now taken measures to bring the area under greater control and is "currently enacting proper regulations."